well adapted to grazing. Timber is abundant, and the export trade in pine lumber is very extensive. It is traversed by several railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 40,522 bushes of wheat, 31,117 of rye, 311,218 of Indian corn, 628,061 of oats, 177,864 of buckwheat, 341,717 of potatoes, 98,459 tons of hay, 108,584 lbs. of wool, 2,580,649 of butter, and 35,560 of honey. There were 8,282 horses, 24,533 milch cows, 20,023 other cattle, 35,700 sheep, and 8,806 swine; 3 manufactories of agricultural implements, 32 of carriages and wagons, 10 of furniture, 4 of iron castings, 18 tanneries, 6 flour mills, 52 saw mills, and 5 woollen mills. Capital, Montrose.

SUSQUEHANNAS. See CONESTOGAS. SUSSEX. I. A N. county of New Jersey, bordering on New York and Pennsylvania, bounded N. W. by the Delaware river, and drained by the Flatkill, Paulinskill, Wallkill, and Pequest; area, 600 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 23,168. The Blue mountains traverse the W. and the Hamburg and Wawayanda mountains the E. part, and the remainder of the surface is very hilly; the soil is very fertile. The Hopatcong lake is in the S. E. part, and supplies the summit level of the Morris canal; and there are several other small lakes. The Sussex railroad passes through it. Franklinite, iron ore, red oxide of zinc, and other minerals are found. The chief productions in 1870 were 64,532 bushels of wheat, 105,306 of rye, 422,776 of Indian corn, 268,477 of oats, 72,870 of buckwheat, 81,006 of potatoes, 40,335 tons of hay, 11,959 lbs. of wool, and 1,455,788 of butter. There were 4,230 horses, 17,376 milch cows, 5,338 other cattle, 3,976 sheep, and 14,414 swine; 8 manufactories of cheese, 1 of pig iron, 3 of castings, 5 of tanned and 5 of curried leather, 18 flour and 7 saw mills, and 6 distilleries. Capital, Newton. II. A S. county of Delaware, bordering on Maryland, Delaware bay, and the Atlantic, and drained by affluents of the Nanticoke and Pocomoke rivers and other streams; area, about 1,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 31,696, of whom 5,438 were colored. The surface is almost level, and the soil fertile. It is intersected by the Delaware division of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore railroad, and the Junction and Breakwater railroad. The chief productions in 1870 were 69,239 bushels of wheat, 1,122,693 of Indian corn, 55,779 of oats, 87,300 of Irish and 53,390 of sweet potatoes, 3,161 tons of hay, 25,566 lbs. of tobacco, 185,005 of butter, 23,517 of honey, and 32,347 gallons of sorghum molasses. There were 4,074 horses, 1,265 mules and asses, 6,127 milch cows, 4,250 working oxen, 6,968 other cattle, 12,213 sheep, and 18,409 swine; 1 woollen mill, 5 flour mills, and 20 saw mills. Capital, Georgetown. III. A S. E. county of Virginia, bounded N. E. by Blackwater river and intersected by the Nottoway; area, 400 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 7,885, of whom 4,923 were colored. The surface is hilly and the soil fertile. It is intersected by

the Atlantic, Mississippi, and Ohio, and the Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Potomac railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 118,305 bushels of Indian corn, 21,357 of oats, 7,223 of Irish and 9,818 of sweet potatoes, 16,110 lbs. of tobacco, 1,833 of wool, and 21,528 of butter. There were 546 horses, 876 milch cows, 1,682 other cattle, 1,352 sheep, and 5,731 swine. Capital, Sussex Court House.

SUSSEX, a S. E. county of England, bordering on Surrey, Kent, the English channel, and Hampshire; area, 1,464 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 417,407. The coast line is not much broken, the most remarkable projection being Beachy Head, 564 ft. above the sea. A range of chalk hills, called the North Downs, crosses the N. E. part of the county; and the South Downs, with an average height of 500 ft. and from 4 to 6 m. broad, run through its entire length nearly parallel to the coast. The principal rivers are the Arun, Adur, and Ouse. The county is purely agricultural, and wheat and hops are the chief products. The downs are principally used for pasturage, and are famous for their mutton. Sussex is remarkably rich in antiquities. It is divided into East and West Sussex, and has two county towns, Chichester and Lewes; the other towns of greatest importance are Brighton, Hastings, New Shoreham, Rye, Arundel, and Newhaven.

SUTHERLAND, a N. county of Scotland, bordering on the Pentland frith, Caithness, the North sea, Ross-shire, and the Minch; area, 1,886 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 24,817. Several small islands which lie off the N. and W. coasts are included in the county. On these sides the coasts are generally high and bold, and are indented by numerous arms of the sea; but that on the east is flat with a low sandy beach. The interior is mountainous, the highest summit being 3,280 ft. above the sea. The rivers are all small with short courses, but there are numerous lakes. The principal crops are oats, barley, and potatoes. Sheep farming is extensively carried on. Game, including deer, is abundant. Dornoch, the capital, is the only town. Great improvements were made by the dukes of Sutherland, proprietors of most of the county, aided by parliament.

SUTHERLAND, George Granville Leveson Gower, duke of, born Jan. 9, 1758, died July 19, 1833. He was a son of the marquis of Stafford, belonging to a family of historic distinction since the 14th century. He early entered the house of commons, and was ambassador in Paris from 1790 to 1799. In 1799 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Gower. In 1803 he inherited the vast estates of his uncle the duke of Bridgewater and of his father, which added to the Gower domain made him one of the richest men in the world. He extended his uncle's great picture gallery, and promoted the fine arts. He was created a duke Jan. 28, 1833. The Bridgewater estates passed to his second son Francis, afterward earl of Ellesmere, and the other property to the elder son,

George Granville Sutherland Leveson Gower (1786-1861), the second duke. The wife of the latter, Harriet Elizabeth Georgiana (born May 21, 1806, died Oct. 27, 1868), a daughter of the earl of Carlisle, and the queen's mistress of the robes for nearly 20 years, was celebrated for her beauty and accomplishments, and promoted anti-slavery and other philanthropical movements. The present and third duke is Sir George Granville William Sutherland Leveson Gower, born Dec. 19, 1828.

SUTLEJ, the most easterly of the five rivers of the Punjaub, in British India. It rises in Thibet N. of the Himalaya mountains, about lat. 31° N., lon. 82° E., flowing N. W. out of Lake Manasarowar, and in the early part of its course is joined by numerous tributaries. After a course of about 200 m. it turns W., and in about lat. 31° 10', lon. 75° 4′, 550 m. from its source, it unites with the Beas, and the river thence flows S. W. and is called the Ghara until its junction with the Chenaub, 300 m. below, when the united stream takes the name of Punjnud, and joins the Indus after a course of about 50 m., in lat. 28° 58', lon. 70° 23'. The upper Sutlej is supposed to be the Hesudrus and the lower the Hyphasis of the ancients. In the upper part of its course the Sutlej is an impetuous torrent, and the scenery magnificent. In the Punjaub plain it is from 7 to 30 ft. deep, and from 250 to 500 and 700 yards wide.

SUTTEE (Sans. sati, from sat, pure), properly, a chaste and virtuous wife, but commonly used to designate the self-immolation of a widow by burning herself with the dead body of her husband. The practice has existed for many centuries, not only in India but in other Asiatic countries. Diodorus Siculus gives an instance which occurred in the army of Eumenes more than 300 years B. C., and in India it is certainly of great antiquity, though the period of its origin is unknown. It was more prevalent there than elsewhere, from the belief encouraged by the Brahmans, and professedly derived from their most sacred books, that it conferred the highest merit not only on the widow herself, but on her dead husband. It was asserted by the Brahmanical writers that every woman who thus burned herself should remain in a region of joy with her husband 35,000,000 years, while otherwise she would have no place in paradise. The prevalence of the practice is to be attributed to belief in this view, rather than to any other influence. A careful study of the Vedas and the Institutes of Manu has shown, however, that these works not only do not command suttee, but impliedly prohibit the practice. Certain passages of the Vedas supposed to relate to it have been the subject of animated controversy among Anglo-Indian scholars. The practice prevailed long after the East India company came into power. The Mohammedan emperor Akbar prohibited it in the 16th century, but without much effect. In the first quarter of the pres772 VOL. XV.-32

ent century several unavailing attempts to repress it were made by the company, and in the 12 years between 1815 and 1826 there were 7,154 cases of suttee officially reported in Bengal alone. In 1829 Lord William Bentinck, governor general, enacted a law declaring all aid, assistance, or participation in any act of suttee to be murder, and punishable as such. This measure created much excitement at first in Bengal, the Brahmans denouncing it with great violence as an interference with their religion, and even sending an agent to England with a large sum of money to procure its repeal; but it was rigidly adhered to, and the excitement soon subsided. In 1847, during Lord Hardinge's administration, the prohibitory edict was extended to the native states in subsidiary alliance with the government of India, and the practice is believed now to be extinct.-The mode of performing suttee was much the same throughout India, varying only according to the rank of the parties or the customs of each province. The widow, seating herself by the side of her husband's body, had the sides of her feet painted red, and then bathed herself and dressed in her finest clothes. Meantime a drum was beaten through the adjacent villages. A large company having assembled, a hole was dug in the ground, and a bed formed of green boughs, on which was reared the funeral pile of dry fagots, hemp, clarified butter, and other combustibles. The widow then gave her ornaments to her friends, painted her forehead, tied red cotton round her wrists, put two new combs in her hair, and, when the body of her husband was placed upon the pile, walked around it seven times, scattering parched rice and cowries, and finally ascended the pile, to which she was secured with ropes. The eldest son or the head man of the village usually lighted the pile. In Orissa the pyre was below the level of the ground, and the widow threw herself down upon it. The practice of suttee never prevailed S. of the Kistnah.

SUTTER, a central county of California, comprising the delta between the Sacramento and Feather rivers; area, 576 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 5,030, of whom 208 were Chinese. It consists chiefly of rich bottom lands, almost the only inequality of surface being the Sutter buttes, an isolated group of three peaks in the north. There is little timber. The chief productions in 1870 were 673,749 bushels of wheat, 26,513 of Indian corn, 452,911 of barley, 14,630 gallons of wine, 126,657 lbs. of wool, 117,875 of butter, and 14,100 tons of hay. There were 4,754 horses, 3,623 milch cows, 4,476 other cattle, 35,078 sheep, and 10,690 swine. Capital, Yuba City.

SUTTER, John Augustus (originally SUTER), an American pioneer, born at Kandern, Baden, Feb. 15, 1803. He graduated at Bern, Switzerland, as a military officer, and in 1834 emigrated to America, where he became known as a Swiss. At Santa Fé he carried on for

approaches to which it defends, and under its municipal authority; pop. about 4,000. It is built upon seven granitic islands forming an ellipse, all of them strongly fortified, and connected either by causeways or bridges of boats. The principal fort is on Vargö island, on the south, and comprises a strong castle and barracks, and magazines excavated in the rock. The total number of cannon is 2,000, but it generally mounts 800; and the usual garrison of the fortress varies from 6,000 to 8,000 men, though the casemates have accommodations for 12,000. The harbor within, to which there is but one entrance, has room for 70 ships of the line. The fortress was erected between 1749 and 1758 by Count Ehrenswerd, field marshal of Sweden (who is buried within it), as a defence against Russia. In 1808 it was besieged by the Russians, and after two months the Swedish commandant and admiral Cronstedt, though amply supplied with the means of defence, capitulated (April 7). Left in the possession of the conquerors by the peace of Sept. 17, 1809, it was called the "Gibraltar of the North," and has since been regarded as the strongest fortress of Russia on the Baltic. In August, 1855, it was severely but unsuccessfully bombarded by the allied fleet. SVERTCHKOFF, Nikolai, a Russian artist, born in St. Petersburg in 1818. He spent several years in Paris, and in 1852 became a member of the academy of St. Petersburg, and in 1855 a professor there. He excels in painting horses, costumes, and figures, and also as a sculptor. His principal works include "The Czar Alexander reviewing his Troops," "A Russian Team of three Horses," "A Russian Horse Market," and "A Relay of Post Horses."

SWABIA, or Suabia (Ger. Schwaben), a duchy of the German empire during its earlier period, and subsequently one of its ten great circles or divisions. The circle was bounded N. by the Palatinate of the Rhine and Franconia, E. by Bavaria, S. by Switzerland, and W. by France, the Rhine flowing on the borders of the two latter. It had an area of 13,000 sq. m., and was conterminous with the present kingdom of Würtemberg, the S. part of Baden, and the district of Swabia and Neuburg in Bavaria. It is one of the most beautiful and fertile tracts in Germany, and is traversed by the Danube from S. W. to N. E., and diversified by the mountain scenery of the Black Forest on the west and the Alps on the south. It was originally called Alemannia, and received the name of Swabia (from the Suevi, who inhabited parts of it) when the Alemanni were conquered by Clovis in 496. St. Columbanus introduced Christianity in the 7th century. Toward the end of the 11th century it was in a very flourishing condition, and in 1080 the emperor Henry IV. made the duchy of Swabia hereditary in the family of Frederick of Hohenstaufen. It subsequently became one of the most powerful and most civilized countries of Germany. In the Italian wars the reigning house of Swabia stood at the head of

the Ghibelline party, and when Conradin was executed at Naples in 1268 the line became extinct. (See HOHENSTAUFEN.) The various cities, prelates, and counts then made themselves independent, and since that time Swabia has not formed a separate state. Various confederacies, however, were formed at different periods, known in history under the name of Swabian leagues. The principal of these was the "great Swabian league" of 1488. The Swabian circle was definitely organized in 1563.

SWAIN, a S. W. county of North Carolina, separated from Tennessee on the north by the Great Smoky mountains; area, about 500 sq.m. It has been formed since the census of 1870 from Jackson co. The surface is generally elevated and mountainous; the soil is good and the county well adapted to stock raising. Capital, Charleston.

SWAIN, Charles, an English poet, born in Manchester in 1803, died near there, Sept. 22, 1874. He learned the business of dyeing, but at the age of 30 became an engraver. In 1828 he published "Metrical Essays," followed by "Beauties of the Mind" (1831) and "Dryburgh Abbey" (1832), an elegy on Sir Walter Scott. His subsequent publications comprise "A Memoir of Henry Liversedge" (1885); "Rhymes for Childhood" (1846); "Dramatic Chapters, Poems, and Songs" (1847); "English Melodies (1849); "Letters from Laura d'Au

verne

(1853); and "Art and Fashion" (1863). Swain was known as the "Manchester poet." A collection of his poems has appeared in the United States (Boston, 1858; new ed., 1872).

SWAINSON, William, an English naturalist, born in Liverpool, Oct. 8, 1789. He served in the Mediterranean in the army commissariat department from 1807 to 1815, then travelled in South America with Koster, the German naturalist, and on his return settled in London. In 1820 he commenced the publication of "Zoological Illustrations, or original Figures and Descriptions of new, rare, or interesting Animals," since republished in 6 vols. 8vo; and in 1821 of "Exotic Conchology" (4to; new ed., edited by S. Hawley, 1841). He has also produced a "Naturalist's Guide for collecting and preserving all Subjects of Natural History and Botany," &c. (1822); 12 volumes on natural history in Lardner's "Cabinet Cyclopædia;" two volumes on the "Birds of Western Africa" and one on the "Fly Catchers," in Jardine's "Naturalist's Library" (1837-'8); "A Treatise on Malacology, or the Natural Classification of Shells and Shell Fish" (1840); and a series of "Ornithological Drawings," being selections of Brazilian and Mexican birds (1834-'41). He assisted Sir John Richardson in the preparation of that part of his "Fauna Boreali-Americana" which relates to North American birds, and in connection with Mr. Shuckard prepared in 1840 "The History and Natural Arrangement of Insects." In 1841 he emigrated to New Zealand, and since his residence there he has published several works on

its social and political condition, and on the natural history of that colony and Tasmania. SWALLOW, the general name of the diurnal fissirostral birds of the family hirundinida, not including the swifts, many of which are called swallows. (See SWIFT.) The bill is short and weak, very broad at the base and suddenly compressed to the tip; the wings long, narrow, and acute; primaries nine or ten, the first the longest; tail more or less forked; tarsi very short and weak, generally naked, and covered with scales; toes usually long and slender, with the claws moderate, curved, and sharp; the gape very wide and usually provided with short bristles. The typical genus hirundo (Linn.), having more than 50 species, embraces several well known, elegant swallows both in America and the old world, remarkable for their great powers of flight. Their food consists of insects, which they take on the wing, usually in the neighborhood of water, with remarkable skill and grace; they drink on the wing, sweeping along the surface of the water, and often wash themselves by a sudden plunge. They fly at the rate of a mile a minute in their ordinary evolutions, but are rather awkward on the ground from the length of the wings and the shortness of the legs; they live more on the wing than any other birds, even feeding their young in the air; their sight is very acute; they fly low in damp weather, where the insects are most abundant, and are thence supposed to foretell rain. They are most numerous in the tropics, migrating to and from temperate regions; in Great Britain they make their appearance from Africa, where they spend the winter, from the beginning to the middle of April, and depart toward the end of October, crossing the channel singly or in small parties; they often alight on vessels, and sometimes fall into the

sea.

In the United States they arrive about a month later and depart several weeks earlier. Most species prefer the neighborhood of man, building their nests in society in his dwellings and buildings; they form attachments to places, returning year after year to the same nests; they are docile and have been partially domesticated; a single bird probably collects about 1,000 insects in the course of a day. The nests are generally made of clay or mud mixed with straw and grass, of various forms, and attached externally to some building; many species breed in holes in sand banks, at the end of which is the nest of grasses and feathers; the eggs are five or six.-The best known species in the old world is the chimney or house swallow (H. rustica, Linn.); it is 63 in. long, bluish black above, with a band on the chest, and the forehead, eyebrows, and throat, ruddy; lower parts rufous white, with a white spot on the inner web of each tail feather except the two innermost; the tail is very long and forked. As its name imports, it frequently builds its nest in chimneys a few feet from the top; it also nests in old walls and shafts of mines, and

among the rafters of barns and sheds; the nest is cup-shaped, made of earth and straw and lined with feathers; the eggs are white, spotted with ash and red. The parents are very attentive to the young, and brave in their defence; they have two broods in a season, the second sometimes left to perish, not being able to quit the nest at the period of migration; the males are sweet singers, and very courageous. The analogue of this species in America is not the one commonly called chimney swallow with us (which is a swift), but the barn swallow (H. horreorum, Barton); it is about 7 in. long and 13 in. in alar extent, glossy steel-blue above, with concealed white in middle of back; it much resembles its European congener, though it has the pectoral collar interrupted in the middle, while in H. rustica it continues across. It inhabits North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, appearing in the southern states from the middle of February to March 1, a few at a time, reaching New England in mild seasons by the mid

Barn Swallow (Hirundo horreorum).

dle of May. It is gentle and easily tamed. The nest is made of mud or moist earth mixed with grasses, and is attached to the beams and rafters of barns and outbuildings; it is generally about 8 in. long, 6 in. in the greatest diameter, and from beam to outside of shell 61 to 4 in., weighing often more than 2 lbs.; the eggs are four to six, small and long, white with a few spots of reddish brown; incubation lasts 13 days, both sexes assisting, and both occupying the nest at night until the young are hatched. This species collects in large flocks in midsummer on barns and sheds, telegraph wires, &c., chirping almost continually, and making short sallies in search of insects. They start for the south by the end of August or first of September, early on some fair morning; they do not fly high, and follow the shore or the course of rivers.-The cliff or fulvous swallow (H. [petrochelidon] lunifrons, Say) is about 5 in. long and 12 in. in alar extent; the crown and back are steel-blue, separated more or less broadly by a grayish collar; the chin, throat, and sides of head dark chestnut; breast grayish brown;