on the S. shore, the Tequamenon, Sturgeon, Ontonagon, Montreal, and Bad. The coast of the lake is for the most part rocky, and on the N. side is much indented by deep bays surrounded with high rocky cliffs, back of which the country soon rises in bleak and dreary mountains. Numerous islands are scattered about this portion of the coast, many rising precipitously to great heights directly up from the deep water. Some present castellated walls of basalt, and some rise in granitic peaks to various elevations up to 1,300 ft. above the lake. Nowhere upon the inland waters of North America is the scenery so bold and grand as on the N. shore of Lake Superior. The irregularities of the coast with the general depth of water here afford numerous good harbors, which however in this unfrequented region are as yet of little service, while on the opposite coast such places of refuge are much wanted. The determination of the coast lines by the wearing action of the waters upon rocks of different degrees of hardness is remarkably exemplified everywhere along the shores of Lake Superior, particularly in the precipitous walls of red sandstone on the S. coast, famous in all the earlier accounts of the lake as the "Pictured Rocks." They stand opposite the greatest width of the lake and exposed to the greatest force of the heavy storms from the north. The effect of the waves upon them is not only seen in their irregular shapes, but the sand derived from their disintegration is swept down the coast below and raised by the winds into long lines of sandy cliffs. At the place called the Grand Sable these are from 100 to 800 ft. high, and the region around consists of hills of drifting sand. The principal bays are Thunder, Black, and Nipigon on the north, Tequamenon at the outlet, Keweenaw on the south, and Fond du Lac at the head. The largest islands are Isle Royale and Michipicoten. The most important places on the shores of the lake are Marquette, Mich., and Duluth, Minn. There are many varieties of excellent fish, the most valuable being white fish, sturgeon, and trout. For the mineral productions of the Lake Superior region, see COPPER MINES, vol. v., p. 323; IRON ORES, vol. ix., p. 407; MICHIGAN, Vol. xi., p. 497; ONTARIO, vol. xii., p. 635; and SILVER, vol. xv., p. 57.

SURAJAH DOWLAH. See CLIVE, and INDIA, vol. ix., p. 210.

SURAT, a walled town of British India, in the northern division of Bombay, in a collectorate of the same name (pop. in 1872, 554,000), on the left bank of the river Taptee, 20 m. from its mouth in the gulf of Cambay, and 150 m. N. of Bombay; pop. about 70,000. It contains an English church, several handsome mosques and temples, numerous Hindoo and other schools, and the Banian hospital, founded and richly endowed by the Jains for the treatment and cure of diseased animals. The city is an organized municipality, with a revenue of nearly £50,000.-Surat is of great antiquity,

and is mentioned in the ancient Sanskrit poem, the Ramayana. When the Mohammedans ruled Hindostan it was their chief port of embarkation on their pilgrimage to Mecca. The Portuguese sacked Surat in 1530. In 1613 the English obtained commercial privileges from the emperor Jehanghir, and established a factory here which became their chief station on the W. coast of India, and remained so till 1686, when it was removed to Bombay. In 1796 the population was estimated at 600,000, and it had then greatly declined in consequence of the loss of its trade. In 1800 the administration of the government was permanently assumed by the British.

SURETY, in law, a person who binds himself to fulfil, either wholly or in part, the engagement of the principal obligor. For those cases in which the surety expressly assumes the obligation technically known as a guaranty, see GUARANTY. When two parties join in making a purchase, or in giving a promissory note, each is in law equally liable to the party with whom the contract was made; but as between themselves, it is always competent for one to show that the transaction was wholly for the benefit and at the request of his co-obligor, and that he became bound as surety merely for his associate. If in such case the surety in face be compelled (as, according to the tenor of his obligation, he obviously may be) to pay the whole, equity declares that he is entitled to complete reimbursement from the principal, and that, in order to secure this reimbursement, the surety is entitled to the benefit of all the security which either the rules of law or the express acts of the parties have given to the obligee or creditor; and if, by any negligence or other acts, the obligee defeat these rights of the surety, he forfeits his right of action against him. If the creditor or obligee is fairly informed of the relation of principal and surety existing between the parties, he is bound to take care that no act of his shall destroy or lessen the surety's right of indemnity from the principal debtor. If therefore he declare that he will look solely to the principal for payment, so that the surety is induced to omit taking security from the latter; or if he tell the surety that the debt has been paid so that he relinquish to the principal his security; the surety will be in both cases discharged from his obligation to the obligee. But the mere inaction of the creditor to pursue his remedies against the principal will not discharge the surety, nor will positive indulgence to the principal have this effect; but if the delay be granted in pursuance of any binding agreement with the principal, so that the surety cannot pay the debt and then proceed at once for indemnity against the principal, the creditor's act releases the surety. And as the surety is entitled to the benefit of all securities given by the principal, he is discharged if the creditor's inaction or negligence have rendered these securities valueless. In short, though the

creditor is not bound, so far as the surety is concerned, to pursue the ordinary legal remedies against the principal, yet he is bound, in respect to all remedies given him by way of pledge or security or by other act of the parties, to hold or pursue them diligently in behalf of the surety; and if he relinquish any such remedy without the knowledge or against the will of the surety, he shall lose his claim against the latter to the extent of the right surrendered. Question has often been made whether the creditor would not lose his right against the surety if the principal should become insolvent after a request by the surety (which was disregarded) that proceedings be immediately taken for collection; but it has generally been held that he did not, and that the remedy of the surety was to pay the debt and then proceed to collect of the principal.

SURF BIRD (aphriza virgata, Gray), a wading bird of the plover family, and subfamily cinclina or turnstones. The bill is about as long as the head, with vaulted obtuse tip and compressed sides; wings long and pointed, with the first quill the longest; tail moderate and even; tarsi as long as middle toe, robust, with small irregular scales; toes long, free at the base, sides of anterior ones margined, and hind one elevated, slender, and partly resting on the ground. It is about 10 in. long, with the wing 7 in.; dark brown above, lighter on the wing coverts, with white spots and stripes on the head and neck; upper tail coverts and basal half of tail white, the latter terminated with brownish black; under parts white, tinged with ashy in front, each feather having a brownish black crescent. It is found on the Pacific coast of North and South America, and in the Hawaiian islands, and is migratory.

SURGEON, a bird of the stork family. See JACANA.

SURGERY, or Chirurgery (Gr. xeip, the hand, and pyov, labor), that department of the art of healing which appertains to the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of the class of diseases which require manual or instrumental measures for their cure. The sphere of surgery is more limited and at the same time more accurately defined than that of medicine. Surgery divides tissues or parts improperly united, and unites those which have been divided when they should remain in union; separates whatever has become dangerous or inconvenient to the patient; removes foreign bodies, or parts of the body which from disease or loss of vitality have become foreign, whenever they exert a hurtful influence on the animal economy; restores to their cavity or replaces in their normal position portions of the body which have become displaced; checks the loss of blood from wounded or divided blood vessels; reduces inflammations, or removes the purulent or phlegmonous matter which may have been deposited by them; repairs and corrects deformities and distortions; and effects the replacement of lost

tissues. Its means of accomplishing these results are the hand, lint, bandages, and apparatus of various kinds, cutting, crushing, and probing instruments, catheters, bougies, sounds, forceps, specula, &c., and the various forms of cauteries, direct and indirect, liquid and solid.-The earliest surgeons of whom there is any record were the Egyptian priests. According to Herodotus, we owe to them the use of the moxa and the adaptation of artificial limbs. Among the ancient Hebrews there is but little evidence of surgical skill, and that little was confined to the priests. In Greece, surgery is as ancient as the mythic period of its history. Chiron the centaur, born in Thessaly, and skilful in the application of soothing herbs to wounds and bruises, is the legendary father of Greek surgery. But Æsculapius, the son of Apollo, said by some to have been the pupil of Chiron, though others call him his predecessor and superior, won the highest fame in that early time for surgical skill. He is said to have been deified on account of his wonderful success about 50 years before the Trojan war. Temples were reared for his worship, which became the repositories of surgical knowledge, at Epidaurus, Rhodes, Cnidus, Cos, and Pergamus. Homer has immortalized his two sons, Podalirius and Machaon, the companions of Agamemnon in the Trojan war, where they rendered essential service in healing the wounds of the Grecian heroes. The Asclepiades, or reputed descendants of Esculapius, retained the monopoly of surgery as well as medicine in their family. They had established in this period three schools of medicine, at Rhodes, Cnidus, and Cos. Pythagoras, in the 6th century B. C., established at Crotona a new school of medicine, in which his peculiar philosophy was probably applied to the art of healing; among its early pupils was Democedes, eminent as a surgeon, who when taken captive by the Persians reduced the dislocated ankle of Darius, and removed or in some way cured the cancerous breast of his queen Atossa, after the Egyptian phy. sicians had failed. The want of anatomical knowledge, no dissections being allowed, was a fatal bar to any considerable progress in surgery. Hippocrates (about 400 B. C.) more than any of his predecessors advanced surgical treatment; he reduced dislocations and adjusted fractures, used the trephine, applied the forceps in accouchement, made incisions into the kidney for the removal of calculi, performed amputations, and perforated the cavity of the ribs in empyema and hydrothorax. Interdicted from human dissection, he practised the dissection of the ape tribe as nearest to man in anatomical structure, and thus obtained much knowledge. For a century after the death of Hippocrates we meet few names of note in surgery. The founding of the Alexandrian school under Ptolemy Šoter about 300 B. C. was another important epoch in the advance of the art. Herophilus and Erasistratus, the

two great leaders of the medical school of that university, if it may be so called, were eminent both as physicians and surgeons; with them commenced the practice of human dissections. The extirpation of the spleen, and the application of remedies direct to scirrhosities and tumors of that viscus and of the liver, were among the bold operations of Erasistratus. To him also belongs the invention and application of the catheter in cases of re- | tention of urine. The pupils of these eminent surgeons invented bandages of peculiar forms, and introduced the tourniquet and contrivances for reducing dislocations of the femur. One of them, Ammonius, employed an instrument for lithontriptic purposes, anticipating Civiale's process.-Rome in the first 700 years of its history produced no surgeon of note. Celsus, who flourished about the beginning of the Christian era, was the greatest of the surgeons of ancient Rome, and his observations on injuries of the head, on cataract, on the ligature of wounded arteries, hernia, lithotomy, fractures and dislocations, amputations, and carbuncle, show considerable knowledge. Aretæus, the first to use the cantharides blister, Heliodorus, Rufus the Ephesian, all of whom flourished between A. D. 50 and 120, and after them Antyllus, added to the surgical knowledge of the time new views of the treatment of injuries of the head, the resort to arteriotomy instead of venesection in sudden emergencies of inflammatory action, bronchotomy in some acute diseases of the throat, the radical cure of hydrocele by free incision of the parts, and a more thorough investigation of diseases of the kidneys and bladder. Galen devoted more attention to medicine than surgery, but his observations on hernia, on luxation of the femur backward, and on the application of the trephine to the sternum in empyema, are of importance. In the early period of Christianity surgery languished; the early Christians opposed dissection as strongly as the pagans, and by attributing the power of healing wounds to martyrs and their relics discouraged all efforts at improvement in surgical science. The first eminent name among the surgeons of the dark ages is Aëtius (500 to 550), whose surgical writings are numerous and valuable. He practised scarification of the extremities in anasarca, operated for aneurism, endeavored to dissolve urinary calculi by internal remedies, discussed hernia with great ability, and wrote on encysted tumors, injuries to nerves and tendons, diseases of the eyes, &c. Alexander of Tralles, a younger contemporary of Aëtius, wrote treatises, now lost, on diseases of the eye and on fractures, which were highly commended for their originality by some of his successors. Paulus Egineta, in the 7th century, was a surgeon of eminence and considerable originality. His sixth book has been considered by many as the best body of surgical knowledge prior to the revival of letters. He recommended topi

cal in preference to general bleeding, as more effective in reducing local inflammation; resorted to copious venesection to accelerate the painful descent of calculi through the ureters; opened internal abscesses with caustics; defined the points for performing paracentesis in ascites; made his incision in lithotomy on one side of the raphe instead of the centre as Celsus had recommended; practised both laryngotomy and tracheotomy, the latter as a means of carrying on respiration during occlusion of the larynx; treated of fractures of the patella; and was the originator of the obstetric operation of embryotomy.-The Arabian physicians, who rose into distinction as those of the West declined in reputation, did little for surgery. Rhazes (about 900) described for the first time spina ventosa and spina bifida, cauterized the wounds from the bites of rabid animals, opposed the use of the knife in cancer except when limited and when the whole tumor could be removed, and gave a clear and satisfactory description of the treatment of hernia. Avicenna (died about 1036) introduced the flexible catheter. Albucasis (died about 1106) introduced an instrument for the cure of fistula lachrymalis, invented the probang, and in wounds of the intestine practised union of the divided parts by suture with success.-In Catholic Europe medical practice and what of surgery remained was mostly in the hands of the clergy until, by the edict of the council of Tours in 1163, they were interdicted from all surgical practice. The Jews were at this period and for a century or two later in high repute as physicians, but they seem to have had a dislike to surgery. Guy de Chauliac, a priest, compiled from the Greek and Arabian authors the earliest work of modern times on surgery, but with very little judgment of what was worth retaining. For two centuries and more surgery was mainly in the hands of the illiterate barber surgeons. The revival of surgical science dates from the appearance of Vesalius (died 1564) as a teacher of anatomy in Italy, followed soon after by Fallopius and Eustachius. Surgery was then for the first time put upon a sound and scientific basis, that of careful dissection, and Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon who had educated himself in anatomical science, was the first of its great lights. He was surgeon successively to four kings of France, and was attached to the French armies as surgeon-general down to 1569. To him we owe the revival and improvement of the practice of tying the arteries after operations or wounds, instead of cauterizing them with hot iron or boiling oil. The pupils of Paré added little lustre to their master's name; but in Italy at the close of the 16th century Fabricius ab Acquapendente flourished at Padua, and his Opera Chirurgica, the first really valuable treatise on surgery of modern times, passed through 17 editions. He was the preceptor of Harvey. Wiseman, sergeant surgeon to Charles II., was the first eminent sur

gical writer and practitioner in England. His recommendation of immediate amputation in military practice, when the preservation of the limb was impossible, has been followed from that time to the present. He left eight treatises on surgery, which are not without value even at the present day. The flap operation in amputation is claimed for James Young, an English surgeon contemporary with Wiseman, and also for two French surgeons, Verduin and Sabaurin, of the same period. In Germany during this century, Hildanus, Scultetus, Purmann, and Heister were the principal surgical writers and practitioners. In Italy the principal names of note toward the close of the 16th and in the 17th century were Taliacotius, the originator of the restorative surgery | in Europe; Cæsar Magatus, who greatly simplified the treatment of wounds; and M. A. Severinus, who banished the salves and plasters | which in Italy had usurped the place of operations. The 18th century witnessed a still greater advance in the science. In England, Percival Pott, well known for his investigation of that form of caries of the vertebra known by his name (see SPINAL DISEASES), and the most judicious writer of modern times on fractures, amputations, injuries of the head, and diseases of the spine; John and William Hunter, the former the greatest master of the principles of surgery in the profession; Cheselden and Douglas, both famous as lithotomists; and the two Monros, father and son, are among the great names of the surgical profession. In France flourished La Peyronie, at whose instance Louis XV. in 1731 founded the academy of surgery; Jean Louis Petit, the greatest French surgeon of the 18th century; Ledran, Garangeot, and the illustrious Desault, the originator of clinical surgical instruction and the inventor of numerous admirable apparatuses for the treatment of fracture. Among the celebrated surgeons of other European countries were Molinelli, Morgagni, Scarpa, Bertrandi, and Moscati in Italy; Deventer, Albinus, and Camper in Holland; and Platner, Röderer, Rambilla, Theden, and Richter in Germany. During the 18th century the ligature of aneurismal arteries of large size, the treatment of hernia and fistula in ano, the cure of fistula lachrymalis, and the skilful management of dangerous and difficult parturitions, were the most important branches of surgery in which there was a material advance from the preceding century; the proper construction of instruments also received great attention. The 19th century has, however, done more for the improvement of this science than all the centuries which have preceded it. In England, Abernethy, Sir Astley Cooper, Liston, and others of the highest reputation have passed away, and others hardly less eminent remain; in France, Dupuytren, Roux, Lisfranc, and Larrey have had no superiors either before or after them. The following may with propriety be particularized as among the improvements

of the age in surgery: the introduction of anæsthesia; resection of the bones at the joints; the preservation of the periosteum and consequent development of new bone; partial amputations of the foot, as instanced in the operation of Lisfranc for the removal of the metatarsus, and of Chopart, Symes, Malgaigne, and Pirigoff for disarticulation of tarsal bones; the amputations at the thigh and shoulder joints; the ligature of arteries within the trunk and immediately at their departure from it; the resection and removal of portions or even the whole of the upper or lower jaw; the operations for cleft or deficient velum palati or palatine vault; the opening by longitudinal section of the air passages at different points to avoid asphyxia; the resection and extirpation of the uterus, of the ovaries, and of the lower portion of the rectum; the introduction of the silver suture, especially in operations on the viscera, as for recto-vaginal and vesico-vaginal fistula; the adoption of the immovable apparatus for fractures; the processes for remedying disunited fracture; the substitution of milder means for the trephine in all except the most serious cases; the improved treatment of ulcers and abscesses; the cure of the most formidable aneurisms by the ligature of the carotid, subclavian, axillary, humeral, and external and internal iliacs; the treatment of varicose veins; the successful treatment of calculus by lithotrity, in consequence of the great improvements made in the processes and instruments; the diagnosis and treatment of tumors, whether encysted, fatty, vascular, or malignant; the cure of strabismus, and the generally improved treatment in diseases of the eye, including the invention of the ophthalmoscope by Helmholtz in 1851, and the reformation of ophthalmic medicine and surgery carried on by Von Graefe, Donders, Bowman, Toynbee, Wilde, Von Tröltsch, Politzer, and others; the restorative processes, by which the nose, lip, and other parts are reformed from adjacent tissues; the treatment of harelip and of club-foot; and the notable advance consequent upon the conservative treatment of gunshot and other wounds of the brain.-As from the nature of their duties suits for malpractice are more often brought against surgeons than against physicians, it will be appropriate here to speak of their legal obligations, though the same laws apply to practitioners in any of the branches of medicine. In

undertaking the treatment of a patient, the surgeon enters into a legal obligation and assumes legal liabilities, which, though seldom expressly defined, are yet, in the apprehension of the law, fixed and certain. The law holds that he contracts for the possession of that reasonable degree of learning, skill, and experience which the members of his profession ordinarily possess. Those also who, like oculists, aurists, or dentists, claim to be particularly conversant with and skilful in the treatment of the diseases of single organs, must be held