of coniferous trees. The land suited to agri- | culture or grazing is mostly confined to a few small valleys and mountain flats. The climate in winter is rigorous. The chief productions in 1870 were 7,794 bushels of wheat, 8,250 of oats, 10,415 of barley, 8,451 of potatoes, 39,200 lbs. of butter, and 7,466 tons of hay. There were 464 horses, 887 milch cows, 2,257 other cattle, 402 sheep, and 437 swine; 13 saw mills, 1 machine shop, and 6 quartz mills. Capital, Downieville.

SIERRA LEONE, a British colony on the W. coast of Africa, forming one of the West African settlements. It occupies a small peninsula terminating in Cape Sierra Leone, lat. 8° 30' N., lon. 13° 18′ E., and extending N. to the estuary of the same name. Along the N. bank of this estuary is a narrow strip of territory belonging to the colony, which also includes the district around the mouth of the Sherbro river, about 70 m. down the coast; area, 468 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 38,936, of whom 107 were Europeans and 1,741 were native Christians. The peninsula is mountainous, some of the peaks rising to the height of 3,000 ft. above the sea; but there are tracts of level ground, and several small valleys, the whole being well watered and for the most part densely wooded. The lower districts are purely alluvial, but in the more elevated parts the geological formation is volcanic, and iron ore occurs. Free Town is the capital, in addition to which the colony contains several considerable villages. The climate is deadly to Europeans. The wet season extends from May to November inclusive; the average annual rainfall is 160 inches, and the mean temperature not far from 82° F. From February to December, 1871, of the 98 Europeans resident at Free Town, 24 died, a death rate far exceeding any other in the British dominions. This excessive mortality, however, is confined to the coast; the mountain villages, only 3 or 4 m. inland from Free Town, are described as quite salubrious. The land breeze, which begins to blow in the evening, comes over swampy ground laden with malaria, and the unwholesome mists cling to the lower terraces. The soil is not naturally very productive, but cassada, cacao, maize, ginger, ground nuts, Guinea corn, yams, plantains, sugar cane, and fruits are all successfully grown. The principal exports are palm oil, nuts, hides, and timber; the total value of the exports in 1871 was £467,755, against imports to the amount of £305,849. In the same year 411 vessels of 110,646 tons were entered in the colony, and 409 of 110,919 tons were cleared. The established educational system is inefficient. The colony has two bishops of the church of England, and there are 100 Christian ministers of all denominations, many of the most intelligent being natives; but the Mohammedan priests from the interior have achieved tenfold the success of the Christian missionaries in making converts. The colonial governor, who is appoint

ed by the crown and is officially known as the chief administrator, is the executive of all the West African settlements. He is assisted by a legislative council, of which some of the members are pure negroes. The revenue in 1871 was £80,486, collected partly by import duties on spirits, tobacco, and gunpowder, while the expenditure amounted to £76,130.— The settlement was originally formed in 1787 by Granville Sharp and other British philanthropists, with the view of providing a suitable home for destitute negroes from different parts of the world, as well as promoting African civilization. The first foreign inhabitants were destitute negroes from London, nearly 500 in number. These were followed in 1790 by more than 1,000 freed slaves who had been collected in Nova Scotia, in 1800 by about 500 maroons from Jamaica, and in 1819 by a disbanded West India negro regiment. In 1807 the Sierra Leone company, which was organized by Sharp, Wilberforce, and others, and had previously controlled the colony, transferred all its rights to the British government. From that time until recent years the population was largely augmented by the introduction of the negroes taken from slave ships by vessels of the British navy.

SIERRA MADRE. See MEXICO, vol. xi., p. 465. SIERRA MORENA. See SPAIN. SIERRA NEVADA. See CALIFORNIA, ROCKY MOUNTAINS, and SPAIN.

SIEYÈS, Emmanuel Joseph, count, better known as abbé, a French statesman, born in Fréjus, May 3, 1748, died in Paris, June 20, 1836. After completing his studies in the university of Paris, he took orders, received in 1775 a canonship in Brittany, and became in 1784 vicar general and chancellor of the bishop of Chartres. The ministry having invited French writers to present their views upon the summoning of the states general, he almost simultaneously published three pamphlets: Vues sur les moyens d'exécution dont les représentants de la France pourront disposer en 1789; Essai sur les priviléges, a vindication of the rights of the people; and Qu'est ce que le tiers état? The answer to this question, which he summed up in "the nation," made him famous as the oracle of the revolution. He was elected deputy to the states general, where he moved that the three orders should immediately meet in general assembly to verify their powers in common; and the privileged orders refusing to comply with this motion, he insisted that the third should declare itself the "national assembly." He drew up the oath taken by the deputies, June 20, 1789, and originated the organization of the national guards and the division of France into departments. In his Aperçu d'une nouvelle organisation de la justice et de la police en France, he proposed jury trial in civil as well as criminal cases. He was elected president of the assembly in 1790. After the flight of the king to Varennes, he vigorously opposed the establishment of a re

public. In September, 1792, he took his seat in the convention, being elected by three departments at once. On the trial of the king, he at first protested against the unlawful assumption of powers by the convention; but yielding to the majority, he sat as one of the judges, and silently voted for death without appeal to the people. During the reign of terror he gave up his priesthood and pension, and skilfully avoided attention, but after the fall of Robespierre regained influence among the moderate party. He moved the restoration of the surviving Girondists to their seats in the assembly, and had a large share in the direction of foreign policy. On the establishment of the directorial government he was elected one of the five directors, but declined, contenting himself with being a member of the council of 500. An unsuccessful attempt was made to assassinate him in 1797. In 1798 he went as minister to Berlin, and secured the neutrality of Prussia. In May, 1799, he succeeded Rewbell as a member of the directory, of which he soon became president. After the coup d'état of the 18th Brumaire, of which he was one of the originators, the liberal constitution prepared by him was altered so as to suit the aspirations of the first consul; and while Bonaparte seized upon absolute power, Sieyes, after having been one of the provisional consuls, had to content himself with a seat in the senate, the presidency of which he held for a while. He also received as a compensation the princely estate of Crosne, with a large income. Although he figured among those opponents whom Bonaparte styled ideologists, he was afterward made a count. In 1814, while absent from the senate, he, through Talleyrand's advice, adhered by letter to such measures as were taken by that body against the emperor, but was nevertheless made a peer during the hundred days. He however stood aloof, censured the "Additional Act to the Constitution of the Empire," and appeared neither at the meeting in the Champ de Mai nor at the opening of the chambers. On the second return of the Bourbons, he sought a refuge at Brussels. After the revolution of July, 1830, he returned to Paris. One volume of his collected works, edited by Cramer, appeared in 1796.-See Etude sur Sieyès, by E. de Beauverger (Paris, 1851).

SIGISMUND, emperor of Germany, the last of the Luxemburg line, born in 1368, died Dec. 9, 1437. He was the second son of the emperor Charles IV., and became elector of Brandenburg, while his elder brother Wenceslas succeeded to the empire in 1378. He was affianced to Mary, daughter of Louis the Great of Hungary and Poland, and was designated as successor in both kingdoms. But on the death of Louis, in 1382, the Poles rejected him, while an adverse party in Hungary raised Charles the Little of Naples to the throne. Charles was assassinated, and Sigismund, having espoused Mary, was crowned king of Hun

gary (1387). He fought the Turks, was routed by Bajazet at Nicopolis in 1396, and fled to Greece; and when after several years he returned to Hungary, he had to contend against a new rival, Ladislas of Naples, who finally withdrew in 1403. In 1400 the incapable emperor Wenceslas had been deposed and succeeded by Rupert of the Palatinate, and on the death of the latter in 1410 Sigismund and his cousin Jodocus of Moravia contested the imperial crown. The electors were at first divided, but on the death of Jodocus in 1411 Sigismund was elected. He called a general council at Constance, violated the safe-conduct accorded to Huss, and provoked the great Hussite war. He succeeded Wenceslas in Bohemia, received the Lombard crown in 1431, and was crowned at Rome in 1433. He was succeeded by his son-in-law, Albert II. of Hapsburg.

SIGISMUND I., II., and III., kings of Poland. See POLAND, vol. xiii., pp. 645-'6. SIGMARINGEN. See HOHENZzollern. SIGNAL SERVICE. Organized signal services existed in armies from very early periods. Polybius (about 200 B. C.) mentions the wonderful skill acquired by the signal corps of his day. In later years semaphores were used with armies, and codes of flag signals became common for fleets. The invention of the electric telegraph greatly developed organizations of this description. Telegraphic corps are now attached to many armies, and field signals are widely used. Messages of any description, and in words or characters of any language, can be sent by signals, by day or night, as far as one man can by telescopes or other means be made visible to another. The apparatus can easily be carried in the hand on horseback or on foot. To transmit any message by the use of portable signal apparatus, a distance of 10 m. would be now considered easy. Ranges of from 16 to 20 m. are often reached in ordinarily clear weather; and on the western prairies messages have been transmitted 30 m. by flags. In time of war systems of reports are sometimes organized to cover extensive sections of territory. In some instances communication can be had from stations on elevated points over the heads of an enemy.— The signal service of the United States army is equipped to maintain communication by signals, by telegraph, or by semaphores, between officers or the different portions of an army or armies, or between armies and fleets. In time of peace it transmits intelligence in reference to storms or approaching weather changes by the display of signals of warning, and by reports at the different cities and ports of the United States. Maps showing the weather conditions are exhibited at board of trade rooms, chambers of commerce, and other places of resort. Bulletins of data are also prominently displayed, and are furnished without expense to leading newspapers. Signal stations are established also in connection with

traced upon the charts from report to report, and the direction and rate of their progress together with their intensity be noted in time to give warning of their approach. Floods occurring upon the western rivers can be traced sometimes from the fall of rain within the respective watersheds, and along the courses of the different confluent streams, until culminating in the dangerous flood of the principal river. In nearly the same manner that storms can be traced upon the charts, approaching changes of temperature and rainfall are foreseen, and notice is frequently given in time to prevent injury to agricultural and other interests. In the analyses of the official deductions of the office, or the "probabilities," the percentage of verifications is found to have been as follows: 1872, 76.8 per cent.; 1873, 77-6 per cent.; 1874, 84-4 per cent. The cautionary signal is a red flag with a black centre by day, and a red light by night. This signal indicates a probability of stormy or dangerous weather for the port or place at which it is displayed, or in that vicinity. While storms of limited extent, such as squalls, tornadoes, &c., may spring up suddenly or pass between stations in such a way that their coming or courses cannot be foreseen, extensive and well defined disturbances can as a rule be readily traced in time to forewarn the coasts or districts threatened. Arrangements have been made with the chiefs of meteorological services in Europe, in accordance with the recommendation of the Vienna conference of meteorologists (1873), providing for the exchange daily of one report taken at the same instant over all the territories of the United States, nearly all Europe, extending through Russian Asia to the Pacific coast, and in the northern portion of Africa. These exchanges are made every 15 days by mail. Besides the daily bulletins and weather maps, the signal office publishes a weekly review of the weather which is furnished to the press, and a monthly review, accompanied with charts showing the isobaric and isothermal lines, the prevailing winds, the tracks of low barometer, and a precipitation chart for the month.

SIGNALS, Fog. See LIGHTHOUSE, vol. x., p. 457.

SIGNALS, Naval. Naval signals are frequently mentioned by the classical writers, and recent investigation has discovered the fact that the system which prevailed during the naval supremacy of Greece and Carthage bore a striking resemblance to our present army code, invented by Gen. A. J. Myer, U. S. A. Signal flags began to be used in the English navy in the time of Elizabeth, or perhaps a little earlier. In the reign of James II. their use was somewhat systematized, and in 1790 or thereabouts, under Earl Howe and Kempenfelt, a regular code of day and night signals was perfected. Besides flags during the last century, arbitrary signs were used as signals, which were well known to all seafaring peo

ple. The signal to unmoor ship, for example, was the loosing of the maintopsail; that to prepare for sailing was loosing the foretopsail and firing one gun. In general there are three classes of signals: those for the day, made by square flags and triangular pennants variously colored of red, blue, white, and yellow; night signals, made with colored lights, rockets, &c.; and fog signals made by steam whistles, fog horns, bells, or guns. By means of the "International Code of Signals for the use of all Nations," all maritime countries use the same kind of signal flags, and having the signal book of each country printed in its own language, ships of different nationalities communicate as readily with each other as ships sailing under the same flag. In most systems the signal flags represent the numerals from 1 to 10, and in the signal book, corresponding to the numbers from 1 up to several thousand, are words and phrases most likely to be used by ships. But in the code just referred to the consonants of the alphabet were used in preference to numerals, by which means it was found that with 18 flags more than 78,000 distinct signals could be made without displaying more than four flags at a time. The number of flags and their position are also significant. Thus, when but two flags are shown, "danger" or "urgency" is implied. If in a signal consisting of two flags a burgee (a swallow-tail flag) is uppermost, it is known at once to be an "attention" signal. If a pennant is uppermost, it is a compass signal. A square flag above indicates an "urgent" signal. flags in one hoist express "latitude, longitude, time," and all ordinary signals required for communications. Four flags indicate geographical signals. The flags representing the alphabet are for spelling out words not found in the vocabulary. With a pennant above, the name of a ship of war is indicated; with a square flag uppermost, that of a merchant vessel. Observing, then, the colors of each flag, we seek in the signal book the same combination of letters and the corresponding message. Let us suppose, for example, that on the meeting of two ships at sea one is observed to hoist two flags. We know at once it is an urgent signal, and on closer examination find the upper one divided vertically, in white and red, the lower one a red burgee. The upper flag represents the letter H, the lower one the letter B. The combination H B in the signal book stands opposite the sentence, "Want immediate assistance." Thereupon the second ship hoists a white and red vertical flag (H), and beneath a red pennant with white ball in centre (F). HF in the signal book corresponds to the sentence, "We are coming to your assistance." As each ship has a signal book printed in the language of its country, this code furnishes a kind of universal language. If the ship first mentioned had found herself on a strange coast, she might have made the same signal to a shore station, and received

Three

the friendly aid of a life boat. Should the distance between two points be too great to distinguish colors, the shape alone indicates the value of the signal, for which purpose a ball, a long pennant, and a square flag are used, known as "distance signals." In addition to the above, each national marine has a system of signals adapted to its own particular wants, not only for holding free communication among the ships of a fleet, the transmitting of orders, conveying of intelligence, &c., but to enable the commander-in-chief of a naval force to signal orders to his ships for the various evolutions of naval tactics. A complete naval signal book comprehends therefore a system of evolutionary tactics. For night signals, red, green, and white lights are used to represent those colors in the flags of the day signals, the green light taking the place of the blue bunting. The night signals known as the "Coston lights" are the best in use. The greatest improvement of recent times in signalling is that made by Gen. A. J. Myer, already referred to. For its perfect simplicity and comprehensiveness it is now considered indispensable to both branches of the public service. The letters of the alphabet are represented by combinations of the numerals 1 and 2 for spelling the words of a message. Each word is punctuated by a comma represented by the numeral 3; 1, 2, and 3 being represented by arbitrary signs. A, for instance, is represented by 2-2, B by 2-1-1-2, C by 1-2-1, &c.; 3 indicates the end of a word, 3-3 the end of a sentence, and 3-3-3 the end of the message. There are also abbreviations. The signals commonly used to represent these numbers are as follows: The signalman, facing his correspondent, waves a flag (at night a lighted torch) to his right to indicate 1, bringing his flag to a rest in a vertical position; to the left to denote 2; and to his front for 3. By waving his flag or torch to his right and left he spells out the words of his message, using frequent abbreviations, so that two expert signalmen may transmit long communications with great rapidity and exactness.

SIGOURNEY, Lydia Huntley, an American authoress, born in Norwich, Conn., Sept. 1, 1791, died in Hartford, June 10, 1865. In 1814 she opened a private school in Hartford, and in 1815 published "Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse." In 1819 she married Charles Sigourney, a merchant of Hartford. In 1840 she visited Europe, and recorded her reminiscences in "Pleasant Memories of Pleasant Lands" (1842). She published nearly 60 volumes of poems, prose, and selections. Among her works are: "Letters to Young Ladies" (1833); "Pocahontas, and other Poems" (1841); "Past Meridian" (1854); "The Man of Uz, and other Poems (1862); and her autobiography, posthumously published under the title "Letters of Life" (New York, 1866).

SIGÜENZA Y GONGORA, Carlos de, a Mexican scholar, born in Mexico in 1645, died there,

Aug. 22, 1700. He was chaplain to the archbishop of Mexico, and taught astronomy and mathematics in the university of that city for 20 years. King Charles II. of Spain created him royal cosmographer and mathematician. He had several discussions on the nature of comets with Father Kuhn, the colonizer of California, and wrote histories of Texas and the Chichimecas, an account of the recovery of New Mexico after the revolt of 1680, and a history of the university of Mexico. With Juan de Alva Ixtlixochitl he prepared several treatises on Mexican antiquities and early American history, which perished with his library in the great fire of June, 1692. He was director of the military school of Mexico for several years, and in 1693 was appointed to accompany the expedition of Andrés de Pés against the French settlements in the gulf of Mexico. He planned the fortifications of Pensacola, and soon afterward published maps of the bays of Pensacola (Santa Maria de Galve) and Mobile, and of the Rio de la Palizada or Mississippi. His name was subsequently given to one extremity of Santa Rosa island and to the fort erected there. He entered the society of Jesus in 1693. His principal works are: Ver Indicum, Poema sacro-epicum (8vo, Mexico, 1668; 4to, 1680); Expositio Philosophica adversus Cometas (1681); Triumphus Parthenicus (4to, 1684); Libra Astronomica et Philosophica (1690); Infortunia Alfonsi Ramirez circum per Orbem euntis (1693); Mercurius volans et Novum Mexicum restauratum præ se ferens (1693); Descriptio Sinus Sancta Maria de Galve (1693); and a topography of Mexico and its neighborhood, enlarged and republished by Alzate in 1786.

SIHON, a name applied by some geographers to the Sir Darya or Jaxartes. (See JAXARTES.)

SIKHS (Hind. sikh, a disciple), a people of India, chiefly inhabiting the Punjaub. They were originally a religious sect, the founder of which was Nanak, a Hindoo of the warrior caste, born in 1469 near Lahore, who was a deist, advocating the worship of God without regard to form as an essential, universal toleration, and a fusion of Brahmanism and Mohammedanism, on the basis of a pure monotheism and of human brotherhood. He died in 1539, and was succeeded by his son Angad, who wrote commentaries upon his father's system, which underwent considerable change at the hands of his successors Amardas and Ramdas. Arjoon, the son of Ramdas, compiled the Sikh doctrines in a volume called Adi-Granth, established himself at Amritsir in 1581, and organized his followers, who had hitherto been only a religious community, into a confederation possessing also a political character, of which he became the sole chief. As the Sikhs rejected alike the Koran and the Vedas, they drew down upon themselves the hatred both of Moslems and Brahmans; and notwithstanding the peaceable increase of the sect up to that period, Arjoon was imprisoned by the