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them of supplies; and by regular siege opera- death or slavery on all the defenders. Even tions. When the siege seemed likely to last in modern times the lives of the garrison are some time, the ancients were in the habit, if jeoparded if the besieged delay making terms they expected sorties from the place or an at- until the final assault is successful.-Transitempt to relieve it from without, of securing tion Period. The introduction of gunpowder their position by a double line of works, of in military operations led to the substitution circumvallation and countervallation. These of earthen trenches for the wooden covers and were generally continuous lines constructed other ancient expedients, and also replaced the of earth, wood, and sometimes of masonry, battering ram by heavy cannon. In this peflanked by towers. Annoying the besieged riod, owing to the imperfection of the artilwith missiles thrown from all the artillery lery, the want of connection between the apknown in that day, they pushed forward cov- proaches, and other deficiencies in the meaered approaches on the points of attack. These sures of attack, the besieged were often able were wooden frames, 7 ft. high, 8 ft. wide, to make a vigorous and prolonged defence, and 16 ft. long, mounted on wheels, with a and sieges became the most important military roof strong enough to resist the projectiles operations of the time. Before 1741 there thrown by the besieged. They were covered were more sieges than battles; from 1741 to with raw hides or turf, or protected by other 1783 the proportion was 67 sieges to 100 batexpedients from being set on fire. The ditch tles; during the French revolution the proporwhen reached was filled with earth, logs, and tion was about 25 to 100; and during the first stones, upon which the battering ram could empire there were only 16 sieges to 100 batbe placed in position to breach the wall; or tles. In recent wars these proportions have a descent was made into it for the purpose still further diminished. But the necessity for of undermining the wall. The battering ram sieges still exists, and the rules and practice was ordinarily placed in the lower story of a of taking a fortified place still hold a promitower and suspended by chains or other mech-nent position in the military art. The present anism. The tower was high enough to com- method of attacking a fortified place by regumand those of the place, and was filled with lar approaches is practically that organized by armed men, who drove the defenders away Vauban. Previous to his time, the middle of from that part of the wall in its front. They the 17th century, although many sieges had were frequently aided by other towers pushed terminated successfully, there was no uniform along on the ground or on inclined planes. system in the modes of attack. Vauban is The besieged, besides shooting lighted arrows especially credited with the invention of ricoand throwing incendiary compositions against chet firing, the concentration of enfilading the approaches, made sorties, which were usu- batteries, and the systematic arrangement of ally bloody in their results, for want of cov- the parallels.-Modern Sieges. Let it be sup ered ways or other exterior works beyond the posed that siege operations are to be conducted ditch. The battering ram being in position, against a fortified place immediately upon the the besieged suspended beams of wood, stuffed theatre of war. As the operations against a contrivances like huge mattresses, and other place fortified by any of the modern systems devices, between the head of the ram and the are governed by the same general conditions, wall, to deaden its blows. They sometimes and are practically the same until the besiegused machines on the principle of the crane, ers reach the counterscarp of the ditch, the by means of which they caught the head of methods used will be fully explained by conthe ram, or even the whole engine, and lifted sidering the mode of conducting an attack on it from the ground or overturned it. Archi- a place fortified by the bastioned system. (See medes devised such machines for the defence FORTIFICATION.) To simplify the explanation, of Syracuse when it was besieged by the it is supposed that the front to be attacked Romans, in 214-212 B. C. The wall being has the usual outworks and occupies a horibreached by the ram, or thrown down by un- zontal site, and that the cannon used by both dermining, preparations were made to assault the besiegers and besieged are the ordinary the place through the opening. Often, while smooth-bore siege artillery. Irregularity of the besiegers were engaged in removing the site and the use of heavier calibre or rifled ruins from the breaches, so that an assault cannon will only have the effect of increasing could be made, the besieged were building a certain distances and adding to the difficulties new wall in rear of the breach enclosing the of the siege, without affecting the principles part attacked, and the whole operation of common to them all. As the scarp walls are moving forward the battering rams and breach- hidden from the besiegers' view by masks of ing the wall had to be renewed. The surren- earth, the object of the siege works is to reach, der or capture was generally due to the ex- under cover, positions where openings in the hausted condition of the besieged, rather than walls can be made either by breaching batto the assaults. It was the custom for the teries or mines; and under the shelter of these besieging army to demand a surrender before approaches troops can be brought up to make they began the siege; and usually the besieged assaults through the openings. In this front, offered to capitulate before the final assault in order to make a breach in the scarp by was made, as a hopeless resistance entailed artillery fire that will be practicable for the

assaulting column, the cannon must be placed on the crest of the covered way, and to make it accessible a descent into and passage of the ditch are necessary. If it is proposed to make an opening by mining, all the preliminary operations as far as the glacis of the work are identical. If the main work has outworks from which a reverse fire can be had on that part of the covered way where the breaching batteries are to be placed, they must first be taken. The accompanying plan will aid in explaining practical siege operations. The attack is made on bastion A, and as the adjacent demilunes D, D, those on the right and left of A, place the covered way of this point

vent ingress and egress, the other those re-
quired to gain possession of the place; but for
convenience they are ordinarily classed into
three parts, called the first, second, and third
periods. The first period comprises the in-
vestment and the encampment of the besieging
army around the place; the second, all the
works from the opening of the trenches until
the completion of the third parallel; and the
third, all subsequent measures until the place
is taken. The investment is performed by de-
taching a strong corps, who, moving quickly
and secretly, suddenly surround the place,
seize all avenues of approach, cut off all com-
munications, and secure everything that may

6

2

1. Half of Plan of regular Approaches against a Front of Attack.

A. Point of attack. B. Adjacent bastion. D. Demilune of front of attack. C. Collateral demilune. E, F. Trench connecting first and second parallels. K, K. Demi-parallels. M, M, M. Enfilading, counter, and mortar batteries. T, T. Troops, called guards of the trenches, protecting the workmen on opening the first parallel.

2. Section showing Slopes and Dimensions of Profile of Approach by simple Trench.

be of service to the

defence. The main
army follows and in-
trenches in positions
around the place out-
side of cannon range.
The intrenchments
ordinarily form two
lines, between which
the besieging army
places its camps,
and are called lines
of circumvallation
and countervalla-
tion. They may be
continuous or with
intervals, the out-
er line being used
to prevent succors,
and the inner to re-
sist the attacks of
the garrison. This
method of construct-
ing lines and enclo-
sing the army be-
tween them was
used by the an-
cients, and fell into
disuse during the
middle ages. It
was revived in the
16th century by the
princes of Nassau,

A bastion corresponding to B, demilunes to C and D, and approaches on the left of A, and has been pracare supposed to be indicated and to form the whole front of attack.

tised more or less ever since. These lines not only enable the besieging army to repulse detachments that try to reënforce the place, but are also useful where the besieging army is forced to take up weak positions to complete the investment. The strength of the besieged work, the nature of the ground, and the facilities for transport

in a reentrant angle, these demilunes must be
taken before the bastion can be breached.
This bastion and the adjacent demilunes with
their outworks must be taken by breach or
assault, and the fire from the collateral de-
milune C and bastion B shown in the plan,
and the corresponding ones on the left not
shown, must be kept under by opposing bat-ing troops and supplies from the depots are
teries during these operations, to enable the
besiegers to carry on their work successfully.
Approaches are made on the three salients,
A, D, D, and these connected by parallels
to hold large bodies of troops to protect the
workmen and repel sorties. The siege opera-
tions may be divided into two general parts,
one including all the measures taken to pre-

governing considerations in selecting the front
of attack. Salients are usually the weakest
points of a fortification; low, marshy soil and
rocky ground present the greatest difficulties
in constructing siege works.-The second pe-
riod begins with the opening of the trenches,
which is done by digging a ditch or trench,
between 600 and 700 yards from the most

L

advanced point of the fortification, from 3 to | pushed forward from it. Vauban prescribes 4 ft. deep and 10 to 12 yards wide, and throw- that there shall be at least three of these paring up the earth in the form of a parapet allels. They serve as places of arms in which on the side toward the work. This trench troops are stationed to protect the workmen and all similar ones are constructed according and to resist sorties, as communications beto the general rules for throwing up field tween the approaches, and to keep these free works; that is, they must afford a shelter from for the workmen and clear of troops. Only the enemy's fire, and permit those occupying three, and the demi-parallels K, K, are shown them to use their arms with effect. The trench in the plan, but there are often many more. is extended far enough on each side of the At Sebastopol the French constructed sevpoint of attack to embrace all the positions en, and at Fort Wagner Gen. Gillmore used required for batteries to keep down the fire of five. Whatever the number, they should be the collateral works. From its being parallel placed in good tactical relations with each to or concentric with a line connecting the other, not so far in advance that the troops most salient points of the work, it is called the occupying the one in the rear cannot come to first parallel. At this distance, the fire of the their support before they are reached by a besieged upon the workmen in the obscurity sortie from the fortification. The besiegers of twilight and darkness will not be trouble- place in front of the second parallel mortar, some; but the distance will be materially af- ricochet, and counter batteries, which, firing fected by irregularity of site and the size upon the work, break down the palisades, disand kind of cannon used. At Sebastopol in mount the guns, and drive away the defenders. 1854 the French established their first paral- The use of rifled guns will cause these batteries lels, one at nearly 1,000 and the other at 1,800 | to be placed further away from the work than yards, and the English at 1,800 yards, from is here represented, probably from 2,000 to the defences in their front. At Fort Wag- 3,000 yards, in which case they should be enner, Charleston harbor, in 1863, Gen. Gill- closed in small works with a sufficient number more opened his first parallel at 1,360 yards of men in each to defend them. From the from the works. Accidents of the ground may nearness to the work, the advance from the enable the besieger to place it much closer. second parallel can only be made by means of Communications are opened from the parallel saps. These are the flying, single or full, the to the depots in the rear, by trenches of the double and half-double saps, according to the same general form, so arranged as to avoid an direction and amount of fire to which the apenfilading fire from the fortifications. As the proach is exposed, and are constructed by enbesiegers desire to get as near as they can to gineer soldiers called sappers. When the foot the point of attack with as little sacrifice of of the glacis is reached, from 60 to 30 yards life as possible, they make their advances by from the salient, the third parallel is conmeans of trenches similar in form to the par- structed, demi-parallels which are long enough allel. These are pushed forward toward the to contain troops to protect the workmen, and point of attack, running in zigzag directions, short enough not to hinder the fire from the crossing and recrossing the lines of the capitals batteries, having been made between it and of the salients, and avoiding enfilading fires the second parallel. The second period ends from any point of the defences within cannon with the construction of the third parallel.range. The approaches, called by many wri- Thus far the advance and progress of the siege ters boyaux or branches, are as a general rule have been made without any great degree of not longer than 100 yards, and, starting at the difficulty or danger. This is now changed, and first parallel with a front of 60 yards, are nar- if the defence is vigorous future progress must rowed to 30 yards at the third parallel. In be made under a murderous fire from the bethis position along the capitals of the salients, sieged, accompanied by many difficulties in the they are less in the way and less exposed. construction of the necessary works for proThese are shown in the plan, one to each tection. The advance on the nearest point of salient, or three in this particular case, but the covered way from the third parallel is by there should be more if the circumstances re- assault or by regular approach. The former quire them. When advanced not quite half is more rapid and more brilliant, but is seldom way between the first parallel and the fortifi- successful, and ought never to succeed if the cation, they are connected by a second parallel, besieged are not entirely exhausted and make which in all essential particulars except in ex- even an ordinary resistance. It has been shown tent is like the first. Being constructed within in recent wars that a single trench, defended destructive range of case shot, the flying sap by two ranks of infantry armed with the imis used instead of the simple trench, as more proved weapons of the present day, is almost speedy cover for the workmen is obtained unassailable by main force. In an attack by by it, and differs from it only in having the two divisions of infantry on a continuous interior slope revetted with gabions. Being trench before Petersburg, Va., defended by a nearer to the first parallel than to the forti- single line of infantry, the number of the atfication, it is protected from sorties made tacking force killed exceeded the total effective against it in its unfinished condition, and its strength of the defenders. If it be decided to object is to protect the approaches as they are make the assault, the third parallel is arranged

with steps on the inner side to allow a detach- | regaining possession of the work. The demiment of picked men to sally out at a given sig- lune being taken, advances are made against nal with a front equal to that of the assaulting the reëntrant places of arms and salient of the column. They are preceded by engineer offi- covered way of the bastion, if they have not cers, who mark out the lines for a trench four already been crowned. Other batteries are or five yards from the crest of the glacis, and established against the faces and flanks of the extending around the salient place of arms, bastion, and operations similar to those already and are followed by a detachment of engineer described are carried on against the main work. troops to construct it. When everything is A capitulation will ordinarily follow the crownin readiness, all the batteries open fire on the ing of the breach in the bastion, unless there place. At a given signal they cease, and the are interior retrenchments, in which case the column of assault rushes forward and takes same method of attack will be followed until possession of the covered way. The engineers there is no longer any defence between the immediately make the sap, into which the besieger and besieged. The breaches are suptroops retire if successful, and afterward con- posed to have been made by battering the ramnect it by suitable communications with the parts with artillery fire. The other method is third parallel. The execution of this trench by means of mines, which are rarely used bearound the salient place of arms is called crown- cause of the slowness of the operation and the ing the covered way. In 1708, at the siege of uncertainty of the result. The explosion of Lille, the covered ways of two of the salients the mine gives no practicable slope for the use of the front of attack were crowned by assault. of the assaulting column, and this must be The attack was made at nightfall by 10,450 made by workmen before it can be used, which men, not counting the troops in the trench- is very difficult and dangerous. To resist the es; they lost 2,000 killed and 4,000 wounded. approach of the besiegers, the defence make The best engineering authorities are opposed use of mines; to destroy these, and to advance to an assault except in case of urgent necessity, their works, the besiegers also employ them. when a day gained may decide the fate of the They will be most largely used between the besiegers themselves, or the time saved by iú third parallel and the main work. The passage compensates for the immense loss of life that of the ditch is a difficult and dangerous operamust accompany it. If the advance is to be tion, rendered doubly so when the besieged made by regular approaches, they are started have a wet ditch, or can make use of water in from the third parallel by saps, which when their defence. In an actual siege, a daily recwithin 30 yards of the salient are spread out ord is made by the engineers of the amount in a circular form to enclose it, and high of work done and the time required, which mounds of earth, called trench cavaliers, are is transmitted to headquarters and preserved. thrown up, by which a command over the By comparisons of these records and the recovered way is obtained. Protected by them, sults obtained in engineering schools, the time the engineers advance their saps to the salients necessary to complete all these works has and extend them to the right and left along been calculated. This time has been used in the faces, at least as far as the traverses, as in comparing the relative value of different systhe case when the assault was made. As soon tems or methods of fortification, by submitting as this is done, they proceed to establish coun- them to a fictitious siege. It is of no value in ter and breaching batteries to fire against the practice, for the duration of sieges depends on demilune and bastion. The former are placed laws which no method of calculation can dearound the salients so as to fire in the direction termine. In order that the besiegers should of the ditches against the portion of the work be successful, their numbers and their armaby which they are swept, while the latter are ment should be in excess of those brought to placed near the counter batteries and nearly resist them, and no fixed rules can be stated opposite to the points where the breaches are for this excess. As a general rule, supposing to be made. Underground galleries are also the investment to be complete, the besiegers constructed, by means of which a descent into should be about six times as numerous as the the ditch can be effected. A breach is con- besieged, and should be kept so by sending sidered practicable for assault when the in- the wounded and sick to the rear and replacing terior of the work is exposed for a width equal them by fresh troops. As the defence have to the front of the column of attack and the not this resource, their numbers constantly débris forms a slope of easy ascent. If breaches dwindle until they are exhausted or overpoware to be made at several points, the operationsered.-Among the most celebrated sieges in should be carried on and the assaults made simultaneously. The breach in the demilune will be carried by assault or by regular approach, and in all essential things there will be no difference in the mode of taking it from that described for the covered way. As soon as the breach is gained, it is crowned, or a lodgment made by encircling it with a trench in which troops are placed to prevent the besieged from

history are those of Babylon, Tyre, Syracuse, Carthage, Numantia, and Jerusalem in ancient times, and of Constantinople, Antwerp, Bergen-op-Zoom, Stralsund, Candia, Lille, Buda, Schweidnitz, Saragossa, Sebastopol, Vicksburg, Strasburg, Metz, and Paris since the introduction of gunpowder.

SIEGEN, a town of Prussia, in the province of Westphalia, on the Sieg, 37 m. S. of Arns