duced by injuries or diseases of the spinal column, or structural affections within the spinal canal. The affection is therefore almost always cerebro-spinal. (See BRAIN, DISEASES OF THE.) Fibrinous exudation, serous effusion, and generally pus follow the inflammation, the serum being often tinged with blood. The attack may be acute or chronic. When acute it extends over the whole or greater part of the membranes of the cord, but chronic meningitis is usually limited in extent, and the inflammation is accompanied by fewer pathological changes. Acute spinal meningitis is regarded by many authorities as incurable, while others assert that mild cases sometimes recover. The symptoms are pain in the spine and in the extremities, increased more by movements of the body than by pressure. There are also spasms of the muscles of the back, either persistent or convulsive, often producing that rigid bending of the body backward called opisthotonos; also tonic contraction of the thoracic muscles, and consequently difficulty of breathing. These symptoms are followed by paralysis, caused by pressure of the products of the inflammation (fibrinous exudation, effused serum, or pus). The paralysis may be confined to the lower extremities, or it may be general, and it is usually limited to motion, while there is preternatural sensibility. The disease runs a rapid course, often terminating fatally within a week. Apnoea, or suspension of the respiratory function from involvement of the roots of the respiratory nerves, is the usual mode of death. The treatment, in cases not dependent on blood poisoning, comprises the application of cups and leeches, setons, moxas, blisters, antimonial ointment, and croton oil, and also of belladonna and chloroform and the warm bath to relieve pain. Iodide of potassium is often given in large doses to promote absorption of the products of inflammation. The diet should be nutritious, but some authorities interdict the use of animal food.—Epidemic Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis. Although there are cases of cerebro-spinal meningitis which are idiopathic, and it is therefore then to be regarded as truly a spinal disease, the vast majority of cases are of epidemic origin, and the spinal lesions are therefore secondary affections, depending upon blood poisoning. The disease is then called epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis, a dangerous affection which has of late prevailed extensively in different parts of the United States and Europe. From the appearance of certain spots upon the skin during the course of the disease it has been proposed to call it spotted fever; but as these spots are not a constant accompaniment, the proposition has not been adopted. The name was given to an epidemic which prevailed in New England between 1807 and 1816, which is supposed by many to be the same disease, but the identity is not established. Some have regarded epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis as a variety of typhus, but the greater suddenness of the attack and the absence of the mulberry rash of typhus indicate a difference of origin. The disease usually begins with a chill, followed by great vertigo, violent headache, obstinate vomiting, and muscular stiffness, which soon passes into tetanus. The face is pale, the pupils contracted, the conjunctivæ red, and the skin exceedingly sensitive. The head is strongly drawn back, even at the end of the first or second day, and there is delirium, which soon passes into the stupor of coma. The bodily temperature is variable, the highest occurring in the most rapidly fatal cases. Wunderlich recognizes three forms. One, rapidly fatal, is accompanied by a high temperature, which rises toward the approach of death to 108° F., and continues to rise for some hours after death. A second form is slight, with fever of short duration and very irregu lar course; a third is protracted, but marked by very great variation of temperature. The pulse at the commencement is usually not more frequent, often slower than normal, and is often intermittent. It increases with the disease, but rarely reaches more than 100 beats per minute until near the fatal termination, when it becomes very small and frequent. The urine is increased in quantity and deposits a large amount of urates, and there is sometimes hæmaturia. In from 20 to 60 hours after the commencement a peculiar eruption usually appears upon the skin of the neck, abdomen, back, arms, legs, and face, composed of distinct dark red or purple spots, somewhat larger than a pin's head. They are not raised above the surface, and do not disappear upon pressure; sometimes they do not become visible till after death. The tongue is moist and creamy until the spasmodic stage is established, when it becomes dry, dark-colored, and covered with sordes. The duration of the disease varies from a few hours to several weeks; cases are reported as terminating fatally in three or four hours, but more than half the deaths occur between the second and fifth days. Convalesence may begin from the fifth day to the fourth week or later, and is always tedious, relapses being common and often fatal. The treatment is various. Bloodletting has been practised, but with unfavorable results, as might be expected from the depression of the vital powers. The use of quinia is regarded with favor, and opium has its advocates; ether and chloroform have been used by inhalation as sedatives; and tincture of cantharides is said to be of service in cases marked by ex treme depression. Counter-irritation, by the actual cautery applied along the spine, or by blisters, has been followed by alleviation of symptoms. The use of cold compresses to the head, and of leeches behind the ears, is also recommended.-Myelitis, or inflammation of the body of the spinal cord, is similar to cerebritis, or inflammation of brain tissue, and may terminate fatally either in the acute inflammatory stage, or by softening, by unde fined suppuration, or by abscess; the most common mode being by softening, the disorganization involving the whole cord or only one column. Acute myelitis, except as a sequel to spinal meningitis, or when caused by a wound, is rare. The symptoms are similar to those of spinal meningitis, and it must be borne in mind that the two diseases are rarely unconnected, one inducing the other, the primary disease being predominant. Paralysis often comes on in a few hours, and is more pronounced than in meningitis. It is usually confined to the lower limbs, but involves the upper extremities when the affection reaches as high as the fifth pair of cervical nerves. When the inflammation is in the upper cervical and occipital sections of the cord, death may take place almost immediately from arrest of respiration. In chronic affections the palsied limbs usually become atrophied, and induration or sclerosis of the cord ensues, caused by an abnormal growth of connective cellular tissue, accompanied by atrophy of nerve tissue. Myelitis attacks subjects of all ages, but more commonly adults, and is more frequent in the male than in the female sex. The treatment depends upon the intensity of the attack; in the majority of acute cases little more can be done than to endeavor to relieve the most urgent symptoms, such as promoting the action of the bowels and preventing retention of urine. Strychnia may be sometimes used in the earlier stages of acute myelitis with advantage, and so may the electric current, and in chronic cases with decided benefit.-Spinal Apoplexy, or hemorrhage within the spinal canal, may be caused by injuries to the spinal membranes, or by degeneration of the cord. Extravasations of blood derived from the membranes are chiefly formed in the lower part of the spinal canal, and the changes found in the substance of the cord, and the blood clot, are similar to those in cerebral apoplexy, as described in BRAin, Diseases of THE. The effusions cause irritation, pain in the back, spasm of muscles below the seat of injury, and finally paralysis. Spinal apoplexy is distinguished from other paralytic affections by observing that the attending paralysis is usually not accompanied by fever or general loss of nervous power, and other symptoms. The treatment is rest and attention to the general state of the health, with moderate counterirritation.-Progressive Locomotor Ataxia (Gr. aragia, want of order). This name has been given to a form of paralysis characterized by disorderly muscular movements in consequence of loss of coördinating power, which has been recognized only within the present century. Duchenne described it in 1858-'9 more fully than any previous author, and gave it its name. Its pathology and location had been pointed out by Dr. Todd, but its causes were more fully investigated by Duchenne. Romberg called the disease tabes dorsalis, and it has also been called myelo-phthisis. There is not much loss of muscular power, except as general debility advances, but the diminution of sensation is more marked. The patient has a peculiar gait in walking, throwing the legs out in a jerking and uncertain manner, and when the disease is pretty well advanced throws his arms out like a man balancing on a tight rope. He seems to be somewhat in the condition of one who is walking in the dark over uneven ground. That which has been termed the "muscular sense" is impaired. The harmony of the reflex impressions by which muscular contractions are regulated and the limbs moved and adjusted is so far disordered that either too much or too little contraction is produced at each step. The foot will be thrown out and not properly brought to the ground, and as if to relieve this deficiency the patient by an effort of the will brings the foot down at the next step with too much force. A chief characteristic is the inability to walk or stand with the eyes closed. It needs the assistance of sight to keep the body erect. The walk is uncertain and reeling even with the eyes open, but if the patient shuts them he will fall. As the disease progresses, the upper extremities become affected, and it is difficult for the patient to tie his cravat or button his coat, or perform any motions requiring coördination of muscular movements. There are certain premonitory symptoms which have been relied upon, such as fugitive shooting pains in different parts of the body, of a neuralgic character; but they are often found unconnected with the disease, and often absent when the disease is present. One of the early symptoms is incontinence of urine consequent upon relaxation of the sphincter muscle, and an irritable state of the mucous membrane of the bladder; and there is often increased sexual activity, which however declines in the progress of the complaint, and at last ends in impotence. A characteristic feature of the disease is transient localized paralysis, such as that of the sixth pair of cranial nerves, which supply the external straight muscle of the eyeball, or the third pair, which supply the elevators of the eyelid, and the constrictor of the iris, so that there is drooping of the lid and dilatation of the pupil, one eye being usually affected more than the other, and vision is sometimes impaired or lost. In some cases these paralytic affections are permanent. When the paralysis of the limbs begins on one side, which it frequently does, it is much oftener upon the left than the right side. Before the disease is much advanced, although the gait is irregular and jerking, the patient retains the power to walk considerable distances in spite of the great exertion which he makes. After a time the power of locomotion is lost, the patient is confined to his bed, he becomes unable to feed himself, and speech is difficult, sometimes impossible. The disease is distinguished from ordinary paraplegia, or anterior spinal paralysis, by the careful and circumspect SPINDLER, Karl, a German novelist, born in Breslau, Oct. 16, 1796, died at Freiersbach, Baden, July 12, 1855. He was educated at Strasburg, joined in Germany a company of strolling players, and resided from 1832 at Baden-Baden. His reputation rests on his historical romances, Der Bastard (3 vols., Zü Der Jesuit (3 vols., 1829), and Der Invalide (5 vols., 1831). His complete works include 102 volumes (1831-'54), besides minor novels contained in his periodical publication Vergissmeinnicht (1830-'55). gait of the latter; and although it has some symptoms in common with general paralysis of the insane, the totality of them will enable a diagnosis to be made. The prognosis is extremely unfavorable; very few cases ever cease progressing, and fewer still recover. The most that can be hoped for is that the disease will remain stationary or progress slowly. Some-rich, 1826), Der Jude (4 vols., Stuttgart, 1827), times it develops rapidly, but generally years elapse before the fatal termination, and in most cases death is produced by some intercurrent affection. The most marked pathological condition is induration or sclerosis of the posterior columns of the spinal cord, involving the gray substance and the roots of the posterior nerves. The sclerosis is an abnormal development of the connective tissue, and produces atrophy and degeneration of the nerve fibres. Among | the most frequent causes of progressive locomotor ataxia are exposure to wet and cold, mechanical injuries, and syphilis. Severe blows and falls, and the concussion produced by railroad collisions and similar shocks, often occasion that congested condition of the spinal cord which ends in locomotor ataxia. Excessive and continued mental exertion, and anxiety or grief, by producing a hyperæmic condition of the brain and spinal cord, sometimes bring on the disease, especially if there is a constitutional fault. Excessive indulgence in the sexual passion has been regarded as a frequent cause, but some revision of opinion will need to be made on this point. The irritable condition of the cord often produces a morbid sexual desire which has not previously been characteristic of the patient, and in which he has not inordinately indulged, and many are now inclined to believe that the cause in question has been overrated. Males are more often affected than females. Of 60 cases analyzed by Carre, 42 were males and 18 females. It is especially a disease of middle life, between the ages of 30 and 50, although it sometimes occurs before 30, and Trousseau reports a case in a patient 80 years old. The disease is sometimes associated with general paralysis of the insane, sometimes one and sometimes the other disease appearing first. There is no particular plan of treatment established. In Europe and in this country success has seemed to attend the employment of the interrupted galvanic current (faradization), and cases are reported as having been benefited by the continuous current of a powerful battery. (See MEDICAL ELECTRICITY.) Long continued and well regulated gymnastic exercises were successfully employed by Eisenmann in two out of six cases. The iodide and the bromide of potassium are beneficial. Counter-irritation with blisters, issues, and cautery has been found of no avail. SPINK, a S. E. county of Dakota, recently Moderate exercise and a well regulated nutri- formed and not included in the census of tious diet, to promote as much as possible the 1870; area, about 800 sq. m. It is intersecthealthy assimilation of tissue, should be re-ed by the Dakota or James river. The surgarded as a main indication. Galvanism promises to be a powerful adjunct, but time is still required to measure its importance. VOL. XV.-18 758 SPINE. See SKELETON, and SPINAL DISEASES. SPINEL (Fr. spinelle), a mineral, sometimes ranked among the precious stones, occurring in regular octahedrons and dodecahedrons, variously modified; hardness, 8; specific gravity, 35 to 4.9. The color is commonly some shade of red, but is sometimes blue, green, yellow, brown, black, and rarely almost white. When pure, it is a compound of magnesia 28, alumina 72; but the magnesia is often replaced to some extent by one or more of the protoxides of iron, zinc, or manganese, or by lime, and the alumina also by peroxide of iron; hence the numerous varieties of the species. These are denominated according to their colors, and some among them are often supposed to belong to other species. The black varieties are called pleonaste; the scarlet, spinel ruby; the rose red, balas ruby; the yellow, or orange red, rubicelle; the violet, almandine ruby; and the green, ceylonite. The goutte de sang of the jewellers is of blood-red or cochineal color. The mineral is infusible before the blowpipe alone, and is not attacked by acids. The most valuable spinels are found in Ceylon, Siam, and other eastern countries, in the form of rolled pebbles in river beds. They are also found in New Jersey, New York, and central Massachusetts. Perfect specimens fit for jewelry are rare; if of more than four carats, they are sometimes rated as worth half as much as diamonds of equal size. The red varieties are said to be sold for true rubies, from which they are with difficulty distinguished; and many of the others are often confounded with other precious stones of similar hardness and specific gravity. The optical properties alone may decide without analysis between the colorless spinel and the limpid topaz of Siberia. Dufrénoy was obliged to apply the test of polarization of light to a white cut spinel from India, which was supposed to be either a diamond or a white emerald. He describes one of a clear crimson with a violet tint, weighing 1,129 grains, of great beauty, valued at 100,000 to 110,000 francs. face is rolling. SPINNING. See COTTON MANUFACTURE, LINEN, ROPE, and WOOL, MANUFACTURES OF. fore, while in the synagogue, learned the art of polishing lenses, by which he gained his subsistence during the remainder of his life. Exiled from Amsterdam by the magistrates on application of the rabbis, he lived for a short time with a friend in the vicinity, went thence to Rhynsburg, near Leyden, whence in 1664 he removed to Voorburg, near the Hague, and finally yieldtirely at the Hague, all the leisure time saved from labor being given to philosophy. After the death of his parents his sisters attempted to deprive him of his portion of the inheritance. Having established his rights by law, he contented himself with taking only a bed. In 1673 the professorship of philosophy in the university of Heidelberg was offered to him, the SPINOLA, Ambrosio de, marquis, a Spanish sol- | dier, born in Genoa in 1569, died near Casale, Piedmont, Sept. 25, 1630. He was a son of the marquis Filippo Spinola, a party leader at Genoa and a rich Levant merchant, and his mother was a princess of Salerno. After filling local offices, he joined his brother Federigo, who had become admiral in the Spanish navy, in the war against the Dutch and Eng-ed to the request of his friends to reside enlish. In 1602 he arrived in the Netherlands with a corps of 9,000 veterans which he had raised and equipped at his own expense, and with which he came to the rescue of the Spaniards under Archduke Albert against Maurice of Nassau. His brother fell in a naval battle, May 26, 1603, and he was desired to succeed him as admiral, but preferred to become chief commander of the Spanish army in the Neth-condition being that he should teach nothing erlands. He covered himself with glory in September, 1604, by compelling the surrender of Ostend, which had been besieged since July, 1601. After other operations against Maurice, who regarded him as next in genius to himself, he was in 1609 among the first to favor the truce for 12 years concluded at the Hague. During the truce he commanded Spanish troops in Germany. In 1622 he took Jülich; in the same year he was repulsed at Bergen-op-Zoom, but made a skilful retreat; and in 1625 he captured Breda after a siege of ten months. He afterward reluctantly became commander of the Spanish army in Italy, and died during the siege of Casale. SPINOZA (also written SPINOSA), Baruch, or Benedict, a Dutch philosopher, born of Jewish parents in Amsterdam, Nov. 24, 1632, died at the Hague, Feb. 21, 1677. He translated his Hebrew name Baruch into Latin as Benedictus. His father, a Portuguese merchant, had fled from persecution to Holland. The son was educated for the rabbinical profession, and gained the admiration not only of the masters of the Hebrew school in Amsterdam, but also of the chief rabbi Morteira, who became his instructor in the Talmud and the Cabala. But he was suspected even before his 15th year of verging toward heresy, and was accused of contemning the law of Moses and denying the immortality of the soul and the reality of angelic communications. Summoned before a rabbinical tribunal, he anticipated excommunication by withdrawing himself from the synagogue. He neglected the repeated summons of the synagogue to trial, and at length in 1656 the anathema maranatha, or greater excommunication, was uttered against him. He was already familiar with the Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, German, and Flemish languages, and was studying Latin under the physician Van Ende. This language introduced him not only to Christian learning, but also to the literature and philosophy of classical antiquity, then studied with special enthusiasm, and opened to him the writings of Descartes. The Talmud makes it the duty of scholars to learn some mechanical art. Spinoza had there opposed to the established religion; but he declined it. When it was proposed to obtain a pension for him from Louis XIV., he replied that he had nothing to dedicate to that monarch. Meanwhile he endured the toil and wants of poverty, and was wont to protract his labors into the night. His first work, Renati Des Cartes Principiorum Philosophia Pars I. et II., More Geometrico Demonstrate (Amsterdam, 1663), which contains in an appendix the germ of his Ethica, immediately gave him the reputation of a great philosopher. His second work, Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, published anonymously in 1670, treats the relation between church and state, and is entirely distinct from his philosophical writings. Religion, he maintained, is neither doctrine nor cultus, but is essentially the love of God, the expression of which is piety and obedience, and its worship is virtue. Doctrines belong to the domain of philosophy, actions to that of the state, feelings to that of religion. Absolute freedom should prevail in the first and the last, while the second should be regulated by the state in the interest of order and tranquillity. He therefore advocated a state religion, which should ordain ceremonials, but leave liberty of thought inviolate. Ho referred for support of his opinions to the Bible, in which he distinguished between the facts narrated and the coloring received from the minds of the writers, and thus laid the foundation of the rationalistic school of interpretation in Germany. Numerous refutations of his work appeared, especially from Cartesian theologians; yet it was read throughout Europe, being published and translated with divers devotional, historical, antiquarian, and even medical titles employed to disguise it. Averse to controversy, Spinoza withheld his other and more important works, which were first published after his death by his friend Ludwig Meyer, a physician of Amsterdam. His health, never vigorous, suffered from unremitted confinement and devotion to study. He sometimes passed entire months without leaving his chamber, occupied only with meditation, conversation with his friends, and answering letters on philosophical sub jects. In a letter dated July 15, 1676, he identifies God with it. The human mind has promises further explanations "if my life be two chief ways of knowledge, the intuitive continued." After his death his manuscripts through the reason, and the imaginative. The were, in accordance with his order, sent to imagination, which deals with the objects of his publisher at Amsterdam, and within a year experience, represents the world as a multiappeared Ethica, Ordine Geometrico Demon- plicity of individuals. It obtains a partial and strata, containing his philosophical doctrine, inadequate view of the images which appear which had been written between 1663 and before it, considers modes as things, and names 1666; Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione, them man, horse, tree, &c. The reason sees and Tractatus Politicus, both of them frag- together in their unity what the imagination ments; a collection of letters to Oldenburg, isolates and individualizes, and attains to adeSimon de Vries, Ludwig Meyer, and Bleyen- quate or exhaustive knowledge, to universal or bergh; and a fragmentary sketch of Hebrew divine ideas, which are pure thoughts, not ingrammar, aiming to give it a logical devel- volving the conception of extension, and not opment. The whole system of Spinoza is a consisting in images or words. The mind is demonstration from the eight definitions and passive and in bondage in so far as it is influseven axioms of the first book of the Ethica. enced by inadequate ideas, and is active and According to him, it follows from the defini- free in so far as its ideas are adequate. If all tion of substance that it is necessary and infi- objects of knowledge be regarded in their renite, that it is one and indivisible, and that it lations to the one absolute Being, the knowlis therefore God, the only self-existent, all- edge of particular outward things, nature, perfect, and absolutely infinite Being. Noth- life, or history, becomes in fact a knowledge ing exists except substance and the modes of of God; and the more complete such knowlits attributes. Substance cannot produce sub- edge, the more the mind is raised above what stance, and therefore there is no such thing is perishable in the phenomena to the idea as creation, no beginning or end, but all things which lies beyond them. It dwells exclusively have necessarily flowed from the Infinite Be- upon the eternal, is occupied with everlasting ing, and will continue to flow on for ever, in laws, emancipates itself from the conditions of the same manner as from the nature of a tri- duration, and secures its immortality, by beangle it follows, and will follow from eter- coming "of such a nature that the portion of nity to eternity, that the angles of it are it which will perish with the body, in comequal to two right angles. Of the infinite parison with that of it which shall endure, number of infinite attributes of Deity, only shall be insignificant." The law of passion is two are known to us, extension and thought, that all things desire life, seek for energy, for the objective and subjective of which he is fuller and ampler being. Every single being the identity. Body is a mode of extension, pursues that which will give it increased vitalwhich being illimitable cannot be divided ity. Man gathers life and self-mastery only thought is also infinite, and mental acts are from the absolute Being; the love of God is modes of it. It follows also that God is the the extinction of all other desires; and virtue only free cause (causa libera); all other things is the knowledge and power of God in the and beings move by fixed laws of causation, human soul, the exhaustive end of human aspiwithout free will or contingency. He is the ration. The ethical principles in which the causa immanens omnium, not existing apart philosophy of Spinoza results were proposed from the universe, but expressed in it, as in a by him as identical with those of the Christian living garment. As conceived in his attributes religion.-The best complete editions of his simply and alone, he is natura naturans; as works in the original Latin are by Paulus conceived in the infinite series of modifica- (2 vols., Jena, 1802-3), Gfrörer (Stuttgart, tions which follow from the properties of these 1830), and Bruder (3 vols., Leipsic, 1843-'6). attributes, he is natura naturata. Between There are German translations by Berthold bodies, the modes of extension, and ideas, the Auerbach, with a biographical notice (5 vols., modes of thought, there is a constant parallel- Stuttgart, 1841; new ed., enlarged, 1874), and ism. The duality everywhere appears, and a by J. H. von Kirchmann and Schaarschmidt soul belongs alike to animals, vegetables, and (1871 et seq.); French translations by Emile minerals. Man is a complex example of this Saisset (2 vols., Paris, 1843; enlarged ed., 8 compound. There is no reciprocal influence vols., 1861), and by J. G. Prat (1863 et seq.). between the bodily and the ideal world, but a Spinoza's newly discovered Tractatus de Deo perfect harmony, since it is the same substance, et Homine has been edited by Van Vloten (Amaffected in the same manner, but expressed sterdam, 1862; German and Dutch translaunder each of the two attributes. Individual tions, 1870), and commented upon by Sigwart beings, whether ideas or bodies, are modes, the (Gotha, 1866) and Trendelenburg (Berlin, 1867). changing forms of substance, to which they are Among his biographers are Colerus (Dutch, related as wavelets to the ocean. The finite 1698; French, 1706; German, 1733), Lucas has no existence as such; substance is not made (Amsterdam, 1719), Dietz (Dessau, 1783), Phiup of modes, but is prior to them; and Hegel lippson (Brunswick, 1790), A. Saintes (Paris, therefore remarks that Spinoza rather denies 1842), Van Vloten (Amsterdam, 1862), and R. the |