only visible sign of opposition to slavery until | cept New Jersey. In 1844 the American antiWilliam Lloyd Garrison established "The Liberator" in Boston, Jan. 1, 1831. Accepting the definition of American slavery furnished by the statutes of the slave states, which declare the slaves to be "chattels personal, in the hands of their owners and possessors, to all intents, constructions, and purposes whatsoever," he asserted that slaveholding was a sin against God and a crime against humanity; that immediate emancipation was the right of every slave and the duty of every master. On Jan. 1, 1832, the first society on this basis was organized in Boston by 12 men, Arnold Buffum, a Quaker, being president. The "American AntiSlavery Society" was formed in Philadelphia in December, 1833, Arthur Tappan being its first president. This society and its auxiliaries expressly affirmed that congress had no right to abolish slavery in the slave states, and they asked for no action on the part of the national government that had not, up to that time, been held to be constitutional by leading men of all parties in every portion of the country. They pronounced all laws admitting the right of slavery to be "before God utterly null and void." They declared that their principles led them "to reject, and to entreat the oppressed to reject, the use of all carnal weapons for deliverance from bondage;" their measures, they said, would be "such only as the opposition of moral purity to moral corruption, the destruction of error by the potency of truth, and the abolition of slavery by the spirit of repentance." By means of lectures, newspapers, tracts, public meetings, and petitions to congress, they produced an intense excitement throughout the country, the effects of which were soon manifest in the religious sects and political parties. The American anti-slavery society and those affiliated with it were opposed to the formation of a distinct anti-slavery political party, deeming it wiser to attempt to diffuse their principles among the members of all parties. In 1840, on account of differences upon this and other matters affecting the policy of the movement, a portion of the members seceded and formed the "American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society." The "liberty party" was organized in the same year, mainly by the seceders and those in sympathy with them. This party was mostly absorbed by the "free-soil party " in the presidential election of 1848, though a small number of persons, holding the opinion that the national government had constitutional power to abolish slavery in every part of the country, continued under the name of liberty party for several years. The free-soil party was in its turn absorbed by the republican party, which in the presidential election of 1856 first exhibited great strength and commanded a popular vote of upward of 1,300,000, though it failed to elect its candidates. In 1860 it elected Abraham Lincoln president and Hannibal Hamlin vice president by the vote of all the free states ex

slavery society openly avowed its conviction that the so-called "compromises of the constitution" were immoral; that, consequently, it was wrong to swear to support that instrument, or to hold office or vote under it. From that time until the secession of the slave states, the abolitionists of this school avowed it to be their object to effect a dissolution of the American Union and the organization of a northern republic where no slavery should exist. The "American Abolition Society" was formed in Boston in 1855, to promote the views of those who held that the national government had constitutional power to abolish slavery in every part of the Union. The "Church Anti-Slavery Society" was organized in 1859, for the purpose of convincing the American churches and ministers that slavery was a sin, and inducing them to take the lead in the work of abolition. There have been few slave conspiracies or insurrections in the United States, and the servile population never produced any band of men to be compared with the Maroons of the West Indies, who so long baffled the exertions of the whites to subdue them. It is estimated that more than 30,000 American slaves, after escaping from bondage, found an asylum in Canada. They were aided in their flight by opponents of slavery in the free states. An attempt, in 1859, at subverting the slave institutions of the United States by an insurrection ended in speedy defeat, and was followed by the execution of the leader, John Brown, and some of his associates. The secession of the states which formed the government of the Confederate States in 1861 wholly changed the relations of the government of the United States to the institution of slavery. Although President Lincoln hastened to make strong assurances of the purpose of the government to abide faithfully by all the compromises of the constitution relating to slavery, and in all the military orders endeavored to provide for so conducting the war as to avoid disturbing the relation of master and slave as it then existed under state laws, it soon became evident that a vigorous prosecution of the war must of necessity make serious inroads upon the institution, if not wholly destroy it in those districts which the federal army should occupy. In May, 1861, Maj. Gen. Butler, commanding the department of Eastern Virginia, declared slaves who had been employed for military purposes of the confederacy to be contraband of war, and appropriated them to the purposes of his own army. In August following Gen. Fremont, commanding in Missouri, issued a general order wherein, among other things, he proclaimed free all the slaves of those who should take up arms against the United States, or take active part with their enemies in the field. In the particular specified this order was modified by direction of the president, but slaves who had performed any service for the confederate army, whether as servants

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The slave had no legal family relations, and any that should be voluntarily formed might be changed at the will of the master, by sale or otherwise. Slaves might be emancipated by the master, by deed or will, under state regulations; but in some of the states the laws were adverse to emancipation, and interposed various obstacles. Whatever was acquired by the slave belonged to his master, and it was therefore legally impossible for the slave to purchase his freedom; nevertheless masters frequently received from their slaves sums which they had accumulated by extra services, and gave them freedom in return. The general doctrine of the courts was that the master by voluntarily taking his slave into a free state gave him his freedom, and this rule was supposed to be applicable to the free territories of the United States until the decision of the supreme court in the case of Dred Scott in 1857, which denied the constitutional power of congress to prohibit the holding of persons in slavery in the territories. Near the same time the doctrine that a master might lawfully hold his slaves in passing through the free states found able advocates among lawyers. Slaves were not allowed legal rights in courts, though persons held as slaves but claiming to be free might bring actions to recover their freedom. Slaves might be witnesses for or against each other where crimes were charged, but were not allowed to be witnesses against white persons. In general the teaching of slaves to read and write was prohibited, as tending to render them discontented with their condition. Prima facie in slave states all colored persons were slaves. Since the abolition of slavery persons living together as husband and wife, and continuing to do so, have been recognized in law as being legally married; but until they had voluntarily assumed that relation after becoming free, they were at liberty to marry others without incurring legal penalty. The colonization of emancipated American slaves in Africa was undertaken in 1820, when the colony of Liberia was founded. (See COLONIZATION SOCIETY.) The colony of Sierra Leone was founded by England in 1787, being composed of American slaves who had joined her flag under promises of freedom. (See SIERRA Leone.) -The following are some of the most important modern works on the subject of slavery: Thomas Clarkson, "History of the Abolition of the Slave Trade" (London, 1808); George Stroud, "Laws relative to Slavery" (Philadelphia, 1827); William Blair, “An Inquiry into the State of Slavery among the Romans" (Ed

been enacted which terminated for ever the long and bitter agitation beginning with the contest about the admission of Missouri to the Union. This declared that "from and after the passage of this act there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in any of the territories of the United States now existing, or which may at any time hereafter be formed or acquired by the United States, otherwise than in the punishment of crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted." On June 23, 1864, all laws for the rendition of fugitive slaves to their masters were repealed. On Jan. 31, 1865, the final vote was taken in congress submitting to the states for their approval and ratification the following amendment to the constitution: "Article XIII. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their jurisdiction." On Dec. 18, 1865, the secretary of state issued his proclamation declaring that this amendment had been approved by the legislatures of Illinois, Rhode Island, Michigan, Maryland, New York, West Virginia, Maine, Kansas, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, Missouri, Nevada, Indiana, Louisiana, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Vermont, Tennessee, Arkansas, Connecticut, New Hampshire, South Carolina, Alabama, North Carolina, and Georgia-in all, 27 of the 36 states-and was consequently adopted. The assassination of President Lincoln put an end to any very serious thoughts of making provision for compensation for losses of slaves; and the fourteenth amendment to the constitution, ratified by a majority of the states in 1867-'8, absolutely forbade compensation being made either by the United States or by any state. Thus terminated for ever in the United States the system of bondage which had been its chief reproach in the eyes of the world and of its own people; which from the outset had been the principal source of solicitude to its statesmen; and the southern defenders of which finally assailed the life of the nation with a power and persistency from which it barely escaped, after losses and sacrifices such as few peoples in modern times have been called upon to suffer.The abolition of slavery has rendered the laws of the several states concerning it of little practical interest, but a few points may be mentioned. The slave was a chattel, for an injury to whom the master might recover damages as for an injury to a beast. Nevertheless he was recognized as a person, so far as to be made amenable to the criminal code, and was pun-inburgh, 1832); L. M. Child, "Appeal in behalf ishable as such. The master had a power of discipline over him which did not extend to life or limb, and for any excess in punishment he might be criminally responsible, as he might for excessive violence to a child or apprentice. The police laws of the state were at the master's service for disciplinary purposes, and stringent regulations were made in his interest.

of that Class of Americans called Africans" (Boston, 1833); Theodore Weld, "American Slavery as It Is" (New York, 1835); William Jay, "A View of the Action of the Federal Government on Slavery" (New York, 1838); David Trumbull, Cuba, with Notices of Porto Rico and the Slave Trade" (London, 1840); Richard Hildreth, "Despotism in America"

ceased, and they split into a number of tribes, separated from each other by political organization and different dialects. The eminent Slavic scholars Dobrovsky, Kopitar, and Schafarik divide the Slavs into the eastern and western_or southeastern and northwestern stems. The former of these contains three branches: 1, the Russians, who are subdivided into Russians and Rusniaks or Ruthenians (in W. Russia, E. Galicia, and N. E. Hungary); 2, the Illyrico-Servian branch, comprising the Serbs proper, the Rascians or Hungarian Serbs, the Bosnians, Herzegovinians, Montenegrins, Slavonians, Dalmatians, Croats, and Slovens or Winds; 3, the Bulgarian branch. The western or northwestern stem comprises: 1, the Lechian or Polish branch, to which belong the Poles, the Slavic Silesians, and an isolated tribe in the Prussian province of Pomerania called Kassubs; 2, the Czecho-Slovak branch, which embraces the Bohemians, Moravians, and Slovaks in N. W. Hungary; and 3, the SoraboWendic or Lusatian branch, containing the remnants of the Slavs of N. Germany. A number of Slavic realms have perished in succession, as those of Bohemia, Moravia, and Po

(Boston, 1840); W. Adam, "The Law and empire of the Huns, S. across the Danube over Custom of Slavery in British India" (Boston, the territories of modern Turkey and Greece. 1840); William Goodell, “Slavery and Anti-With this extension the unity of the race Slavery" (New York, 1843); Wallon, Histoire de l'esclavage dans l'antiquité (Paris, 1847); Fuller and Wayland, Domestic Slavery (New York, 1847); Copley, "A History of Slavery" (London, 1852); Horace Mann, "Slavery, Letters and Speeches" (Boston, 1851); John Fletcher, "Studies on Slavery" (Natchez, 1852); "The Pro-Slavery Argument" (Charleston, 1853); F. L. Olmsted, "A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States,' "A Journey through Texas," "A Journey in the Back Country," and "The Cotton Kingdom" (New York, 1856'61); the Rev. Albert Barnes, "An Inquiry into the Scriptural Views of Slavery" (Philadelphia, 1855); Theodore Parker, "Trial for the Misdemeanor of a Speech against Kidnapping" (Boston, 1855); the Rev. Nehemiah Adams, "A South Side View of Slavery" (Boston, 1855); George Fitzhugh, "Sociology for the South" (Richmond, 1855); Arthur Heips, "The Spanish Conquest in America, and its Relation to the History of Slavery," &c. (London and New York, 1856-'60); Weston, "Progress of Slavery in the United States" (Washington, 1857); T. R. R. Cobb, "An Inquiry into the Law of Negro Slavery" (Philadelphia and Savannah, 1858); John C. Hurd, "Law of Free-land; and at the beginning of the present cendom and Bondage in the United States" (Boston, 1858); J. R. Giddings, "Exiles of Florida" (Columbus, O., 1858); H. R. Helper, "The Impending Crisis of American Slavery" (New York, 1859); A. Gurowski, "Slavery in History (New York, 1860); Horace Greeley, "The American Conflict" (2 vols., Hartford, 1864-'6); E. M'Pherson, "History of the Rebellion" (Washington, 1865), and "History of Reconstruction" (Washington, 1868); A. H. Stephens, "The War between the States" (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1868-'70); S. J. May, "Recollections of the Anti-Slavery Conflict" (Boston, 1868); and Henry Wilson, "Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America" (3 vols., Boston, 1871-'6).

SLAVIC RACE AND LANGUAGES. The Slavs or Slavi (in the Slavic languages, Slovene, Stowianie, &c., names now commonly derived from slovo or słowo, word; hence, "peoples of one tongue") are one of the most numerous and powerful groups of nations of the IndoEuropean or Aryan race, occupying at present nearly the whole of eastern Europe and parts of northern Asia. They seem to have anciently been included in the names of the Scythians and Sarmatians. Roman writers refer to the Slavs under the name of the Venedi (Winds, Wends), and later writers under that of Serbs, both of which still designate branches of the race. In the most ancient times to which the history of the Slavs as such can be traced, their seats were around and near the Carpathian mountains, whence they spread N. toward the Baltic, W. toward the Elbe and Saale, and finally, after the destruction of the

tury only one, Russia, was left, besides which Servia and Montenegro maintain a semi-independent position.-In modern times a Panslavic movement, aiming at a closer union of all Slavic tribes, has arisen and gained considerable political importance. One of the first publicly to advocate it was the Czecho-Slovak poet Kollar, who published an address to all the Slavs, urging them to drop their numerous family feuds, to consider themselves as one great nation, and their related languages essentially as one. The idea was seized upon with eagerness by the Bohemians and other Slavs of Austria, who by a Slavic union hoped to prevent their being absorbed by the German and Hungarian races. It has since gained great strength in Austria by the endeavors of Schafarik, Palacky, Gaj, and other eminent Slavists, and has also found many distinguished advocates in Poland and Russia, in literary as well as in political circles. From a federative union of all Slavs under a democratic form of government to a union under the sceptre of the czar, every possible form of future organization has found advocates, the movement being principally fostered by Russian, and according to circumstances also by Austrian, influence. In the Slavic congress of Prague, assembled in the spring of 1848, the revolutionary element prevailed, leading to a bloody conflict with the Austrian troops under Windischgrätz, and the severe persecution of various members of the congress. The opening of the Austrian provincial diets and central Reichsrath in 1861 was productive of new Panslavic manifestations. An important Panslavic gathering took

to have been a kind of monotheism, which gradually passed into polytheism, and lastly into pantheism. Yet the idea of one divine essence was never completely lost, at least among the priests. All Slavs worshipped as their highest god Sviatovist, beside whom the other divinities were accounted as mere demigods. Among these Perun and Radegast received the highest honors. In addition to their gods, they believed in good and evil spirits and demons of different kinds, in the immortality of the soul, and in a retribution after death. Worship was held by their priests in forests and temples, and sacrifices of cattle and fruit were offered. The dead were burned, and their ashes preserved in urns.--See Schafarik, Slawische Alterthümer (2 vols., Leipsic, 1843); Talvi, "Historical View of the Languages and Literature of the Slavic Nations" (New York, 1850); Miklosich, Vergleichende Grammatik der slawischen Sprachen (Vienna, 1852-'71), and Beiträge zur Kenntniss der slawischen Volkspoesie (1870); and Naaké, "Slavonic Fairy Tales" (London, 1874).

place in Moscow on occasion of the ethno- | primitive religion of the ancient Slavs seems graphic exhibition opened in May, 1867. The aggregate number of the Slavs was estimated by Schafarik about 35 years ago at about 80,000,000, of whom about 39,000,000 were Russians, 13,000,000 Rusniaks or Ruthenians (in a wider sense, including the Little Russians), 10,000,000 Poles (including Silesians and Kassubs), 4,500,000 Bohemiars and Moravians, 3,500,000 Bulgarians, 2,800,000 Slovaks, &c. More recent estimates place the aggregate number of the Slavs nearer to 90,000,000. (See EUROPE, vol. vi., p. 787.)-The Old or Church Slavic (so called because it is still used in divine service) is the oldest branch of the Slavic languages. The Bible or parts of it were translated into it by Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century, the former of whom also invented an alphabet for it, which was called after him the Cyrillic, and is still used by the Serbs belonging to the Greek church, and in a modified form by the Russians, while the Poles, Bohemians, and others use the Roman alphabet. (See GLAGOLITIO.) The church books written in Old Slavic are still used by the Serbs and Russians. Among the most important documents of this language are old gospels. The oldest works of the Servian and Russian literature, as the works of Nestor, were also written in this language. There is a grammar of it by Miklosich (Vienna, 2d ed., 1854). Formerly this was regarded as the common language of the ancient Slavs and as the mother of all the present Slavic idioms, but modern investigations have clearly shown that it was only their elder sister. Where this idiom was spoken is a controversy not yet settled; but the best authorities favor the claims of Bulgaria, regarding the present Bulgarian as its direct descendant. It is no longer a living tongue, but its treasures are still an inexhaustible mine for its younger sisters. Of the living Slavic languages, the Russian, Polish, Bohemian, and Servian have considerable literature. These languages, as well as their literatures, are treated separately under their respective heads. Among the peculiarities of the Slavic languages are the following. They have three genders. Like the Latin, they have no articles, with the exception of the Bulgarian, which suffixes one to the noun. The nouns, pronouns, and adjectives have seven cases. Some dialects have a dual. The verbs are divided into perfect and imperfect, whose relation to each other is about the same as that of the perfect and imperfect tenses in the conjugation of the Latin verb. All the dialects are comparatively poor in vowels and deficient in diphthongs. There is a great variety of consonants, and especially of sibilants, but nof proper is to be found in any genuine Slavic word. Slavic words very seldom begin with a, and hardly ever with e. The letters and r have in some Slavic languages the value of vowels, and words like tvrdy, vjtr, are in metre used as words of two syllables.-The

SLAVONIA, or Sclavonia (Hun. Tótország), a province of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, forming with Croatia a kingdom united with that of Hungary, bounded N. and E. by Hungary proper, W. by Croatia, and S. by Turkey; area, inclusive of the recently annexed portions of the former Military Frontier, about 6,600 sq. m.; pop. about 600,000, chiefly belonging to the Greek church. It is divided into the counties of Pozsega, Veröcze, and Szerém (Sirmia). Capital, Eszék. The Danube and the Drave separate Slavonia from Hungary, and the Save from Turkey. A branch of the Carnic Alps traverses its whole length. The mountains abound in coal and marble and in mineral springs, and the forests yield valuable timber. There are many extensive plains covered with vineyards, which produce large quantities of excellent red and white wines. Cattle are largely exported to Cisleithan Austria and Turkey, along with many other products, among which are grain, hemp, flax, tobacco, and silk. The chief manufacture is glass. Among the principal towns are Peter wardein, Carlovitz, and Semlin on the Danube, and Mitrovitz (anc. Sirmium), Brod, and Old Gradiska on the Save, all formerly included in the Military Frontier. The inhabitants belong to the Illyrico-Servian branch of the Slavs. (See SERVIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.)-Under the Romans Slavonia formed part of the province of Pannonia, and was called Pannonia Savia. Later it belonged to the Byzantine empire, until it was occupied by the Avars and Slavs. In the time of Louis le Débonnaire it had its own prince, who submitted to the sovereignty of the Franks. In the 11th century it was incorporated with Hungary. It was conquered by the Turks in 1524, and was formally ceded to them in 1562; but in 1699, by the peace of Carlovitz, it was