dévoilées ou Louis XVII.... (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1846-1848); | flight to Varennes, Monsieur also fled by a different route, O. Friedrichs, Correspondance intime et inédite de Louis XVII. and, in company with the comte d'Avaray-who subsequently (Naundorff) 1834-1838 (2 vols., 1904); Plaidoirie de Jules Favre devant la cour d'appel de Paris pour les héritiers de feu Charles- replaced Mme de Balbi as his confidant, and largely influenced Guillaume Naundorff (1874); H. Provins, Le Dernier roi légitime his policy during the emigration-succeeded in reaching Brussels, de France (2 vols., the first of which consists of destructive criticism where he joined the comte d'Artois and proceeded to Coblenz, of Beauchesne and his followers, 1889); A. Lanne, " Louis XVII. et le which now became the headquarters of the emigration. secret de la Révolution," Bulletin mensuel (1893 et seq.) of the Société des études sur la question Louis XVII., also La Légitimité (Bordeaux, Toulouse, 1883-1898). See further the article "Naundorff in M. Tourneux, Bibl. de la ville de Paris pendant la Révolution, vol. iv. (1906). Williams.-J. H. Hanson, The Lost Prince: Facts tending to prove the Identity of Louis XVII. of France and the Rev. Eleazer Williams (London and New York, 1854).

In 1810 his wife died, and in 1811 d'Avaray died, his place as favourite being taken by the comte de Blacas.1 After Napoleon's defeats in 1813 the hopes of the royalists revived, and Louis issued a fresh manifesto, in which he promised to recognize the results of the Revolution. Negotiations were also opened with Bernadotte, who seemed willing to support his cause, but was really playing for his own hand.

ministry of the day. While Decazes was still in power, the king's policy to a large extent followed his, and was rather liberal and moderate, but after the assassination of the duc de Berry (1820), when he saw that Decazes could no longer carry on the government, he sorrowfully acquiesced in his departure, showered honours upon him, and transferred his support to Richelieu, the head of the new ministry. In the absence of Decazes a new In March 1814 the Allies entered Paris, and thanks to Talley-favourite was found to amuse the king's old age, Madame du rand's negotiations the restoration of the Bourbons was effected, | Cayla (Zoé Talon, comtesse du Cayla), a protégée of the vicomte Louis XVIII. entering Paris on the 2nd of May 1814, after issuing Sosthène de la Rochefoucauld and consequently a creature of the declaration of St Ouen, in which he promised to grant the the Ultras. As the king became more and more infirm, his power nation a constitution (octroyer une charte). He was now nearly of resistance to the intrigues of the Ultras became weaker. The sixty, wearied by adversity, and a sufferer from gout and obesity. birth of a posthumous son to the duc de Berry (Sept. 1820), the But though clear-sighted, widely read and a good diplomatist, death of Napoleon (5th of May 1821) and the resignation of his impressionable and sentimental nature made him too subject Richelieu left him entirely in their hands, and after Villèle had to personal and family influences. His concessions to the formed a ministry of a royalist character the comte d'Artois reactionary and clerical party of the émigrés, headed by the was associated with the government, which passed more and comte d'Artois and the duchesse d'Angoulême, aroused suspicions more out of the king's hands. He died on the 16th of September of his loyalty to the constitution, the creation of his Maison 1824, worn out in body, but still retaining flashes of his former militaire alienated the army, and the constant presence of Blacas clear insight and scepticism. The character of Louis XVIII. made the formation of a united ministry impossible. After may be summed up in the words of Bonaparte, quoted by Sorel the Hundred Days, during which the king was forced to flee to (L'Europe et la Rév. fr. viii. 416 footnote), "C'est Louis XVI. Ghent, the dismissal of Blacas was made one of the conditions avec moins de franchise et plus d'esprit." He had all the Bourbon of his second restoration. On the 8th of July he again entered characteristics, especially their love of power, combined with a Paris," in the baggage train of the allied armies," as his enemies certain nobility of demeanour, and a consciousness of his dignity said, but in spite of this was received with the greatest enthusiasm2 as king. But his nature was cold, unsympathetic and calculating, by a people weary of wars and looking for constitutional govern- combined with a talent for intrigue, to which was added an ment. He was forced to retain Talleyrand and Fouché in his excellent memory and a ready wit. An interesting judgment first ministry, but took the first opportunity of ridding himself of him is contained in Queen Victoria's Letters, vol. i., in a letter of them when the elections of 1815 assured him of a strong of Leopold I., king of the Belgians, to the queen before her royalist majority in the chamber (the chambre introuvable, accession, dated the 18th of November 1836, "Poor Charles X. a name given it by Louis himself). At this time he came into is dead. . . . History will state that Louis XVIII. was a most contact with the young comte (afterwards duc) Decazes, prefect liberal monarch, reigning with great mildness and justice to of the police under Fouché, and minister of police in Richelieu's his end, but that his brother, from his despotic and harsh disposiministry, who now became his favourite and gained his entire tion, upset all the other had done and lost the throne. Louis confidence (see E. Daudet, Louis XVIII. et le duc Decazes). XVIII. was a clever, hard-hearted man, shackled by no principle, Having obtained a ministry in which he could trust, having very proud and false. Charles X. an honest man, a kind friend," as members the duc de Richelieu and Decazes, the king now &c. &c. This seems fairly just as a personal estimate, though gave it his loyal support and did his best to shield his ministers it does not do justice to their respective political rôles. from the attacks of the royal family. In September 1816, alarmed at the violence of the chambre introuvable, he was persuaded to dissolve it. An attempt on the part of the Ultras to regain their ascendancy over the king, by conniving at the sudden return of Blacas from Rome to Paris, ended in failure.

The events and ministerial changes of Louis XVIII.'s reign are described under the article FRANCE: History, but it may be said here that the king's policy throughout was one of prudence and common sense. His position was more passive than active, and consisted in giving his support as far as possible to the 1 Pierre-Louis-Casimir, comte (afterwards duc) de Blacas d'Aulps, was as rigidly royalist as d'Avaray, but more able. E. Daudet, Hist. de l'émigration, i. 458, quotes a judgment of him by J. de Maistre: Il est né homme d'état et ambassadeur."

2 See account by Decazes in E. Daudet, Louis XVIII. et le duc Decazes, pp. 48-49, and an interesting secret and confidential' letter of Castlereagh to Liverpool (July 8, 1815) in the unpublished Foreign Office records: The king sent for the duke and me this evening to the Thuilleries. . . . We found him in a state of great emotion and exaltation at the reception he had met with from his subjects, which appears to have been even more animated than on his former entrance. Indeed, during the long audience to which we were admitted, it was almost impossible to converse, so loud were the shouts of the people in the Thuilleries Gardens, which were full, though it was then dark. Previous to the king's dismissing us, he carried the duke and me to the open window. Candles were then brought, which enabled the people to see the king with the duke by his side. They ran from all parts of the Gardens, and formed a solid mass of an immense extent, rending the air with acclamations. The town is very generally illuminated, and I understand from men who have traversed the principal streets that every demonstration of joy was manifested by the inhabitants."

It is as yet not proved that Blacas returned from his embassy in response to a summons from the Ultras. But whether it was on his own initiative or not, there can be no doubt as to the hopes which they built on his arrival (see Daudet, Louis XVIII. et le duc Decazes.

...

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-There is no trustworthy or complete edition of the writings and correspondence of Louis XVIII. The Mémoires de Louis XVIII. recueillis et mis en ordre par M. le duc de D. . . . (12 vols., Paris, 1832-1833) are compiled by Lamothe-Langon, a well-known compiler of more or less apocryphal memoirs. From the hand of Louis XVIII. are: Relation d'un voyage à Bruxelles et à Journal de Marie-Thérèse de France, duchesse d'Angoulême, corrigé et Coblentz, 1791 (Paris, 1823, with dedication to d'Avaray); and annoté par Louis XVIII., ed. Imbert de St Amand (Paris, 1896). Some of his letters are contained in collections, such as Lettres de France (Paris, 1830; letters addressed to d'Avaray); Lettres et d'Artwell; correspondance politique et privée de Louis XVIII., roi instructions de Louis XVIII. au comte de Saint-Priest, ed. Barante (Paris, 1845); Talleyrand et Louis XVIII., corr. pendant le congrès de Vienne, 1814-1815, ed. Pallain (1881; trans., 2 vols., 1881); see also the corr. of Castlereagh, Metternich, J. de Maistre, the Wellington Dispatches, &c., and such collections as Corr. diplomatique de Pozzo di Borgo avec le comte de Nesselrode (2 vols., 1890-1897), the correspondence of C. de Rémusat, Villèle, &c. The works of E. Daudet are of the greatest importance, and based on original documents; the chief are: La Terreur Blanche (Paris, 1878); Hist. de la restauration 1814-1830 (1882); Louis XVIII. et le duc Decazes (1899); Hist. de l'émigration, in three studies: (i.) Les Bourbons et la Russie (1886), (ii.) Les Émigrés et la seconde coalition (1886), (iii.) Coblenz, 1789-1793 (1890). Developed from these with the addition of much further material is his Hist. de l'émigration (3 vols., 1904-1907). Also based on original documents is E. Romberg and A. Malet, Louis XVIII. et les cent-jours à Gand (1898). See also G. Stenger, Le Retour des Bourbons (1908); Cte. L. de Remâcle, Bonaparte et les Bourbons. Relations secrèts des agents du cte. de Provence sous le consulat (Paris, 1899). For various episodes, see Vicomte de Reiset, La Comtesse de Balbi (Paris, 1908; contains a long bibliography, chiefly of memoirs concerning the emigration, and is based on documents); J. B. H. R. Capefigue, La Comtesse du Cayla (Paris, 1866); J. Turquan, Les Favorites de Louis XVIII. (Paris, 1900); see also the chief memoirs of the period, such as those of Talleyrand, Chateaubriand, Guizot, duc de Broglie, Villèle, Vitrolles, Pasquier, the comtesse de Boigne (ed. Nicoullaud, Paris, 1907), the Vicomte L. F. Sosthène de la Rochefoucauld (15 vols., Paris, 1861-1864); and the writings of Benjamin Constant, Chateaubriand, &c.

zombat (1360) and of Pressburg (1360) summoned by him adjusted all the outstanding differences between the central European powers. Louis's diplomacy, moreover, was materially assisted by his lifelong alliance with his uncle, the childless Casimir the Great of Poland, who had appointed him his successor; and on Casimir's death Louis was solemnly crowned king of Poland at Cracow (Nov. 17, 1370). This personal union of the two countries was more glorious than profitable. Louis could give little attention to his unruly Polish subjects and was never very happy among them. Immovably entrenched behind their privileges, they rendered him only the minimum of service; but he compelled their representatives, assembled at Kassa, to recognize his daughter Maria and her affianced husband, Count Sigismund of Brandenburg, as their future king and queen by locking the gates of the city and allowing none to leave it till they had consented to his wishes (1374). Louis is the first European monarch who came into collision with the Turks. He seems to have arrested their triumphant career (c. 1372), and the fine church erected by him at Maria-Zell is a lasting memorial of his victories. From the first he took a just view of the Turkish peril, but the peculiar local and religious difficulties of the whole situation in the Balkans prevented him from dealing with it effectually (see HUNGARY, History). Louis died suddenly at Nagyszombat on the 10th of September 1382. He left two daughters Maria and Jadwiga (the latter he destined for the throne of Hungary) under the guardianship of his widow, the daughter of the valiant ban of Bosnia, Stephen Kotromaníc, whom he married in 1353, and who was in every way worthy of him.

See Rationes Collectorum Pontif. in Hungaria, 1281-1375 (Budapest, 1887); Dano Gruber, The Struggle of Louis I. with the Venetians for Dalmatia (Croat.) (Agram, 1903); Antal Pór, Life of Louis the Great (Hung.) (Budapest, 1892); and History of the Hungarian Nation (Hung.) (vol. 3, Budapest, 1895). (R. N. B.)

General Works.-See the histories of France, the Emigration, the | preferred arbitration to war, and the peace congresses of NagysRestoration and especially the very full bibliographies to chapters i., ii. and iii. of Cambridge Modern History, and Lavisse and Rambaud, Hist. générale, vol. x. (C. B. P.) LOUIS I. (1326-1382), called "the great," king of Hungary and Poland, was the third son of Charles Robert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, daughter of the Polish king, Ladislaus Lokietek. In 1342 he succeeded his father as king of Hungary and was crowned at Székesfehérvár on the 21st of July with great enthusiasm. Though only sixteen he understood Latin, German and Italian as well as his mother tongue. He owed his relatively excellent education to the care of his mother, a woman of profound political sagacity, who was his chief counsellor in diplomatic affairs during the greater part of his long reign. Italian politics first occupied his attention. As a ruler of a rising great power in search of a seaboard he was the natural adversary of the Venetian republic, which already aimed at making the Adriatic a purely Venetian sea and resented the proximity of the Magyars in Dalmatia. The first trial of strength began in 1345, when the city of Zara placed herself under the protection of Hungary and was thereupon invested by the Venetians. Louis fought a battle beneath the walls of Zara (July 1st, 1346), which has been immortalized by Tintoretto, but was defeated and compelled to abandon the city to the republic. The struggle was renewed eleven years later when Louis, having formed, with infinite trouble, a league of all the enemies of Venice, including the emperor, the Habsburgs, Genoa and other Italian towns, attacked his maritime rival with such vigour that she sued for peace, and by the treaty of Zara (February 18th, 1358) ceded most of the Dalmatian towns and renounced the title of duke of Dalmatia and Croatia, hitherto borne by the doge. Far more important than the treaty itself was the consequent voluntary submission of the independent republic of Ragusa to the suzerainty of the crown of St Stephen the same year, Louis, in return for an annual tribute of 500 ducats and a fleet, undertaking to defend Ragusa against all her enemies. Still more glorious for Hungary was Louis's third war with Venice (13781381), when he was again aided by the Genoese. At an early stage of the contest Venice was so hardly pressed that she offered to do homage to Hungary for all her possessions. But her immense resources enabled her to rally her forces, and peace was finally concluded between all the powers concerned at the congress of Turin (1381), Venice virtually surrendering Dalmatia to Louis and undertaking to pay him an annual tribute of 7000 ducats. The persistent hostility of Venice is partially attributable to her constant fear lest Louis should inherit the crown of Naples and thus threaten her trade and her sea-power from two sides simultaneously. Louis's younger brother Andrew had wedded Joanna, grand-daughter and heiress of old King Robert of Naples, on whose death, in 1343, she reigned in her own right, refused her consort any share in the government, and is very strongly suspected of having secured his removal by assassination on the night of the 19th of September 1345. She then married Prince Louis of Taranto, and strong in the double support of the papal court at Avignon and of the Venetian republic (both of whom were opposed to Magyar aggrandisement in Italy) questioned the right of Louis to the two Sicilies, which he claimed as the next heir of his murdered brother. In 1347, and again in 1350, Louis occupied Naples and craved permission to be crowned king, but the papal see was inexorable and he was compelled to withdraw. The matter was not decided till 1378 when Joanna, having made the mistake of recognizing the antipope Clement VII., was promptly deposed and excommunicated in favour of Prince Charles of Durazzo, who had been brought up at the Hungarian court. Louis, always inexhaustible in expedients, determined to indemnify himself in the north for his disappointments in the south. With the Habsburgs, Hungary's natural rivals in the west, Louis generallying between the magnates and the gentry at the diet of 1525. maintained friendly relations. From 1358 to 1368, however, the restless ambition of Rudolph, duke of Austria, who acquired Tirol and raised Vienna to the first rank among the cities of Europe, caused Louis great uneasiness. But Louis always

LOUIS II. (1506-1526), king of Hungary and Bohemia, was the only son of Wladislaus II., king of Hungary and Bohemia, and the French princess Anne of Candale. Prematurely born at Buda on the 1st of July 15c6, it required all the resources of medical science to keep the sickly child alive, yet he developed so precociously that at the age of thirteen he was well bearded and moustached, while at eighteen his hair was silvery white. His parts were good and he could speak and write six languages at a very early age, but the zeal of his guardians and tutors to make a man of him betimes nearly ruined his feeble constitution, while the riotous life led by him and his young consort, Maria of Austria, whom he wedded on the 13th of January 1522, speedily disqualified him for affairs, so that at last he became an object of ridicule at his own court. He was crowned king of Hungary on the 4th of June 1508, and king of Bohemia on the 11th of May 1509, and was declared of age when he succeeded his father on the 11th of December 1521. But during the greater part of his reign he was the puppet of the magnates and kept in such penury that he was often obliged to pawn his jewels to get proper food and clothing. His guardians, Cardinal Bakócz and Count George of Brandenburg-Anspach, shamefully neglected him, squandered the royal revenues and distracted the whole kingdom with their endless dissensions. Matters grew even worse on the death of Bakócz, when the magnates István Báthory, János Zapolya and István Verböczy fought each other furiously, and used the diets as their tools. Added to these troubles was the ever-present Turkish peril, which became acute after the king, with insensate levity, arrested the Ottoman envoy Berham in 1521 and refused to unite with Suleiman in a league against the Habsburgs. Nevertheless in the last extremity Louis showed more of manhood than any of his counsellors. It was he who restored something like order by interven

It was he who collected in his camp at Tolna the army of 25,000 men which perished utterly on the fatal field of Mohács on the 29th of August 1526. He was drowned in the swollen stream of Csele on his flight from the field, being the second

LOUIS PHILIPPE I., king of the French (1773-1850), was the | London, where he lived till 1807-for the most part in studious eldest son of Louis Philip Joseph, duke of Orleans (known retirement. during the Revolution as Philippe Egalité) and of Louise Marie Adelaide de Bourbon, daughter of the duc de Penthièvre, and was born at the Palais Royal in Paris on the 6th of October 1773. On his father's side he was descended from the brother of Louis XIV., on his mother's from the count of Toulouse, "legitimated" son of Louis XIV. and Madame de Montespan. The legend that he was a supposititious child, really the son of an Italian police constable named Chiapponi, is dealt with elsewhere (see MARIA STELLA, Countess of Newborough). The god-parents of the duke of Valois, as he was entitled till 1785, were Louis XVI. and Queen | Marie Antoinette; his governess was the famous Madame de Genlis, to whose influence he doubtless owed many of the qualities which later distinguished him: his wide, if superficial knowledge, his orderliness, and perhaps his parsimony. Known since 1785 as the duc de Chartres, he was sixteen at the outbreak of the Revolution, into which-like his father he threw himself with ardour. In 1790 he joined the Jacobin Club, in which the moderate elements still predominated, and was assiduous in attendance at the debates of the National Assembly. He thus | became a persona grata with the party in power; he was already a colonel of dragoons, and in 1792 he was given a command in the army of the North. As a lieutenant-general, at the age of eighteen, he was present at the cannonade of Valmy (Sept. 20) and played a conspicuous part in the victory of Jemappes (Nov. 6).

On the 18th of May 1807 the duc de Montpensier died at Christchurch in Hampshire, where he had been taken for change of air, of consumption. The comte de Beaujolais was ill of the same disease and in 1808 the duke took him to Malta, where he died on the 29th of May. The duke now, in response to an invitation from King Ferdinand IV., visited Palermo where, on the 25th of November 1809 he married Princess Maria Amelia, the king's daughter. He remained in Sicily until the news of Napoleon's abdication recalled him to France. He was cordially received by Louis XVIII.; his military rank was confirmed, he was named colonel-general of hussars, and such of the vast Orleans estates as had not been sold were restored to him by royal ordinance. The object may have been, as M. Debidour suggests, to compromise him with the revolutionary parties and to bind him to the throne; but it is more probable that it was no more than an expression of the good will which the king had shown him ever since 1800. The immediate effect was to make him enormously rich, his wealth being increased by his natural aptitude for business until, after the death of his mother in 1821, his fortune was reckoned at some £8,000,000. Meanwhile, in the heated atmosphere of the reaction, his sympathy with the Liberal opposition brought him again under suspicion. His attitude in the House of Peers in the autumn of 1815 cost him a two years' exile to Twickenham; he courted popularity by having his children educated en bourgeois at the public schools; and the Palais Royal became the rendezvous of all the leaders of that middle-class opinion by which he was ultimately to be raised to the throne.

The republic had meanwhile been proclaimed, and the duc de Chartres, who like his father had taken the name of Egalité, posed as its zealous adherent. Fortunately for him, he was too young to be elected deputy to the Convention, and while his His opportunity came with the revolution of 1830. During father was voting for the death of Louis XVI. he was serving the three "July days" the duke kept himself discreetly in the under Dumouriez in Holland. He shared in the disastrous day background, retiring first to Neuilly, then to Raincy. Meanwhile, of Neerwinden (March 18,1793); was an accomplice of Dumouriez Thiers issued a proclamation pointing out that a Republic would in the plot to march on Paris and overthrow the republic, and embroil France with all Europe, while the duke of Orleans, on the 5th of April escaped with him from the enraged soldiers who was a prince devoted to the principles of the Revolution" into the Austrian lines. He was destined not to return to France and had "carried the tricolour under fire" would be a "citizen for twenty years. He went first, with his sister Madame Adelaide, king" such as the country desired. This view was that of the to Switzerland where he obtained a situation for a few months rump of the chamber still sitting at the Palais Bourbon, and as professor in the college of Reichenau under an assumed name,1 a deputation headed by Thiers and Laffitte waited upon the mainly in order to escape from the fury of the émigrés. The duke to invite him to place himself at the head of affairs. He execution of his father in November 1793 had made him duke returned with them to Paris on the 30th, and was elected by the of Orleans, and he now became the centre of the intrigues of the deputies lieutenant-general of the realm. The next day, wrapped Orleanist party. In 1795 he was at Hamburg with Dumouriez, in a tricolour scarf and preceded by a drummer, he went on foot who still hoped to make him king. With characteristic caution to the Hôtel de Ville-the headquarters of the republican party— Louis Philippe refused to commit himself by any overt preten- where he was publicly embraced by Lafayette as a symbol that sions, and announced his intention of going to America; but the republicans acknowledged the impossibility of realizing in the hope that something might happen in France to his their own ideals and were prepared to accept a monarchy based advantage, he postponed his departure, travelling instead on the popular will. Hitherto, in letters to Charles X., he had through the Scandinavian countries as far north as Lapland. protested the loyalty of his intentions,3 and the king now nomiBut in 1796, the Directory having offered to release his mother nated him lieutenant-general and then, abdicating in favour of and his two brothers, who had been kept in prison since the Terror, his grandson the comte de Chambord appointed him regent. on condition that he went to America, he set sail for the United | On the 7th of August, however, the Chamber by a large majority States, and in October settled in Philadelphia, where in February declared Charles X. deposed, and proclaimed Louis Philippe 1797 he was joined by his brothers the duc de Montpensier and "King of the French, by the grace of God and the will of the the comte de Beaujolais. Two years were spent by them in people." travels in New England, the region of the Great Lakes, and of the Mississippi; then the news of the coup d'état of 18 Brumaire decided them to return to Europe. They returned in 1800, only to find Napoleon Bonaparte's power firmly established. Immediately on his arrival, in February 1800, the duke of Orleans, at the suggestion of Dumouriez, sought an interview with the comte d'Artois, through whose instrumentality he was reconciled with the exiled king Louis XVIII., who bestowed upon his brothers the order of the Saint Esprit. The duke, however, refused to join the army of Condé and to fight against France, an attitude in which he persisted throughout, while maintaining his loyalty to the king. He settled with his brothers at Twickenham, near 1 As M. Chabaud de la Tour. He was examined as to his fitness before being appointed. Gruyer, p. 165.

2 This at least was his own claim and the Orleanist view. The matter became a question of partisan controversy, the legitimists asserting that he frequently offered to serve against France, but that

The career of Louis Philippe as King of the French is dealt with elsewhere (see FRANCE: History). Here it must suffice to note something of his personal attitude towards affairs and the general effects which this produced. For the trappings of authority he cared little. To conciliate the revolutionary his offers were contemptuously refused. A. Debidour in the article view; but see Gruyer, La Jeunesse, and E. Daudet, Louis-Philippe " in La Grande Encyclopédie supports the latter Une réconciliation de famille en 1800," in the Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 15, 1905, p. 301. M. Daudet gives the account of the interview left by while protesting his loyalty to the head of his house, did not disguise the comte d'Artois, and he also makes it clear that Louis Philippe, his opinion that a Restoration would only be possible if the king accepted the essential changes made by the Revolution.

44

To say that these protestations were hypocritical is to assume too much. Personal ambition doubtless played a part; but he must have soon realized that the French people had wearied of “legitimism and that a regency in the circumstances was impossible.