From 1860 to 1900 nearly fifteen million immigrants came to this country from the Old World. Pauper immigrants and the Chinese are excluded. The greater number of these immigrants have settled as follows:

The Germans, north of 36° 30', and chiefly from Pennsylvania to Colorado.

The Irish, north of 36° 30′, chiefly along the coast and in the cities and towns as far west as the Dakotas.

The Scandinavians, north of 41°, and chiefly between Lake Michigan and Montana.

The Canadians, north of 41°, from the Atlantic to the Dakotas.

The Chinese, chiefly on the Pacific coast.

The English and Scotch, quite uniformly over our country.

The Italians, largely in the South and in the seaport towns, also in New Jersey and Illinois.

The Polanders, in the mining regions, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, and temporarily wherever railroads were building.

There had been a continuous migration to the West from the older states, and as a rule the course was directly westward from older states. The migration from New England, though relatively small, is suggested by the names of two cities, Portland, Maine, and Portland, Oregon.

The great migrations were directly west and mostly north of the former slave-holding states, from New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois; directly west and mostly south of 36° 30', from Virginia, the Carolinas, Georiga, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi.

The Pacific states were populated from states north and south of 36° 30'. From California and Oregon many have gone into Nevada, New Mexico, Washington, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana; that is, into the mining states.

States west of Illinois have laws like those of New York, Ohio, and Illinois, rather than like those of Virginia, Kentucky, and states south of them.

States west and southwest of Tennessee and Mississippi have laws resembling those of Virginia, the Carolinas, and

1860-1900]

CITIES

583

Kentucky. The two sections of the country have laws of the New York type and of the Virginia type.

But the mining states from the Missouri to the Pacific have laws modeled largely after those of California.

The growth of American cities during the last forty years of the century was typified in Chicago. In 1860 it had a population of one hundred and ten thousand, in 1900 it was nearly seventeen times as great. Our country in 1900 had five hundred cities, each having a population of not less than eight thousand. In Washington's time there were only six such cities.

The reason for this astonishing growth of cities is the same as it was half a century ago. Most of our factories are in cities, and these give employment. Many of the principal schools are there. Cities offer many opportunities for making a living. Hospitals, theaters, charitable organizations, are maintained there. Cities are great railroad centers. But our city population is over-crowded and thousands suffer there who would get along comfortably in the country. The chief causes of the growth of cities are the centralization and concentration of capital and labor in them.

Fuel and raw material are cheaply transported; markets are reached over railroads that center in the great towns. During the last thirty years of the century, Belgian blocks or asphaltum largely took the place of cobblestones for street-paving. After 1880, electric light largely displaced gas light. Nearly all our cities extended and beautified their parks. Public health compelled this. Surface drainage almost entirely disappeared. Nearly every city now has a department of public health. Our cities are cleaner than they were thirty years ago. Most noticeable is the improvement in "rapid transit." Since 1890 horse-cars have quite disappeared and given place to electric or cable

cars.

City architecture underwent a revolution after 1870 by the use of iron in buildings. Buildings fourteen stories high are no longer uncommon.

Electric lighting made possible great improvements in the health, the safety, and the business of cities.

After 1860 petroleum came into use. The art of refining it so as to make it non-explosive was perfected by 1876. At first the refineries made no use of the waste, but this was soon found to be highly valuable. About sixty useful products are now manufactured from the oil.

In April, 1877, the telephone was first used for business purposes. After ten years' experimentation, Alexander Graham Bell perfected an instrument. It connected Boston and Somerville. Thomas A. Edison and Elisha Gray invented instruments, also, in 1877-1880. Since 1884 telephones have come into common use.

About the same time Charles G. Brush, of Cleveland, Ohio, Moses G. Farmer, of Newport, Rhode Island, William E. Sawyer, of New York City, Albon Man, of Brooklyn, and Edison, of Menlo Park, New York, were working in independent lines on the problem of electric lighting. In 1878 the incandescent light was put on the market. Since that time electric lighting has become one of the great enterprises of this country and of the civilized world.

The electric dynamo revolutionized transportation and manufacturing. In 1876, at the Industrial Exhibition at Philadelphia, the "Centennial" electric lights and motors were displayed as scientific toys. At the Columbian Fair, Chicago, in 1893, a building covering nine and three-tenths acres was wholly devoted to electricity. The use of electricity has only began.

Yet one must not conclude that invention and discovery have been chiefly in electricity since the days of Lincoln. Equal progress was made in every branch of manufacture. To-day there is scarcely a machine of any kind to be found of the pattern of 1860. Railroad locomotives, cars, and steamboats to-day are not of the pattern of 1860; farming tools, mechanics' tools, stationary engines are of a new type. Machinery is finer, lighter, and stronger than it used to be. Perhaps a type of the change is the steam-shovel. This was quite unknown in 1860. To-day steam-shovels are made weighing two hundred thousand pounds, and lift ten tons without effort at one time. The wonderful progress in applied electricity has been paralleled in other directions. This was evident from a glance at the various

1860-1900]

BOOKS AND AUTHORS

585

buildings at the Columbian Fair devoted to mining, to transportation, to manufactures, and to machinery.

The newspaper as we know it began during the Civil War. People demanded the latest news. The papers that could best supply it prospered; the rest perished. The system of correspondence, distribution, and illustration, and of quick, cheap issues then began.

The reporter caine into being, and his race for news has gone on over the world. "Interviewing" was unknown till war time.

A multitude of newspapers, magazines, and journals are now published in the interest of special occupations, industries, and pursuits. These, with few exceptions, began publication after 1860.

The Century Magazine, founded in 1870 as Scribner's Monthly, took its present name in 1881. The Forum was started in 1886, The Popular Science Monthly in 1872. Within recent years there have been established several illustrated magazines, such as McClure's, Munsey's, and The Chautauquan, and quasi-magazines like The Woman's Home Journal, which reach millions of readers.

The great dailies often contained as much reading matter as a magazine, and many of them became penny papers. Nearly thirteen thousand American periodicals were read by the American people.

The great writers who began to publish their works. between 1830 and 1860, with few exceptions, continued writing for many years. Bryant died in 1878, Longfellow and Emerson in 1882, Lowell in 1891, Whittier in 1892, and Holmes in 1895. All these may be said to have done their best work after 1860. Motley died in 1877, and Bancroft, Parkman, and Parton in 1891. Of the historians who distinctively belong to a later period are John Fiske, born 1842; John Bach McMaster, 1852; Henry C. Lea, 1825; Moses Coit Tyler, 1835, and James F. Rhodes, 1848.

The forty years after 1860 marked an era in literature the world over. In America three writers were conspicuous, William Dean Howells, Francis Bret Harte, and Samuel W. Clemens, the latter better known as "Mark Twain." These were conspicuous because they were wonderfully

productive through all these years. Howells and Harte published their first books in 1860: Howells, a thin volume of poems and a campaign life of Abraham Lincoln; Harte, a little book of short stories; and each averaged a book a year during the next forty years. Clemens, beginning five years later, was equally prolific. The period may be called the age of the American novel, with Howells as the central figure. Our literature was enriched by many other writers, most of whom were living at the close of the century. Among famed books of the period must be included General Grant's Memoirs, written in 1885 on his death-bed. He wrote with the classic simplicity of Plutarch.

The books which distinguish the period were not in literature, but in science; books on politics, social economy, and applied science in its various and multitudinous forms. The list was enlarged by current publications on the same subjects. For the first time since the invention of printing, newspapers, magazines, and books devoted to social economy, engineering, education, religion, government, and innumerable reforms were published at a profit. It may be called the age of the magazine, literary and scientific. One need only to turn to an old file of magazines, published before 1860, and one of the best may be named, Harper's, and contrast them with the magazine of to-day, in typography, illustration, and contents, to appreciate the significance of the description of the period since 1860 as the age of the American magazine.

Of the great personages who move across the historical stage during the last forty years of the century, one fills the perspective and seems to project himself into all timeAbraham Lincoln. Though in the eye of the world for

*There is room here to mention only a few: George William Curtis (1824-1892); Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1836); Richard Henry Stoddard (1825); William W. Story; J. G. Holland (1819-1892); Louise M. Alcott 1832-1888); John W. Draper (1811-1882); T. W. Parsons (1819-1892); Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward (1844); U. S. Grant (1822-1885); S. w. Clemens, "Mark Twain" (1835); Lew Wallace (1827); Charles Dudley Warner (1829-1900); Edmund Clarence Stedman (1833); Mary N. Murfree, James L. Allen, George W. Cable (1844); Emma Lazarus (1849-1887); Walt Whitman (1819-1892); Brander Matthews (1852); Francis Marion Crawford (1854); John Burroughs (1837); Henry James (1843); Edwin P. Whipple (1819-1886), and Charles Eliot Norton (1827).