TYPE-SETTING MACHINE of elements. 2. When this substitution takes place in equal numbers of equivalents, the body in which the substitution occurs retains its chemical type, and the elements which have entered into it play therein the same part as the element which has been abstracted. The chemical type included bodies containing the same number of atoms of their elements, and resembling each other in their principal chemical properties, such as chloroform, bromoform, and iodoform. But when the number of elements varied while the number of atoms of the substance remained the same, they were regarded as belonging to the same molecular type, as marsh gas, CH4, formic acid, CH2O2, chloroform, CHCl3, and chloride of carbon, CCl4. Berzelius opposed this theory, holding that acetic acid and trichloroacetic acid, which Dumas regarded as belonging to the same type, did not so belong, but that acetic acid is an oxide of a radical, while trichloroacetic acid consists of oxalic acid copulated with chloride of carbon; and so of other substitution compounds. But to maintain this position it was necessary to invent many radicals for compounds which were evidently analogous; and therefore when Melsens showed that acetic can be produced from trichloroacetic acid by the action of sodium amalgam, the idea that these two bodies were not built upon the same type could no longer be maintained. Gerhardt, by the introduction of his "theory of residues," reconciled the radical and substitution or type theories by supposing that a radical can be substituted for an element in a compound without altering the type; not, however, by direct substitution, but by the formation of a body of elements from each of the bodies brought together, by which residues are formed that subsequently unite. The discovery of the alcoholic ammonia bases by Wurtz and Hofmann in 1850, by which it was shown that the hydrogen in ammonia, NHs, may be replaced by equivalents of the radicals ethyle and methyle, favored the union of the two theories. This conclusion was still further strengthened in the same year by Williamson's explanation of the general relations of the ethers and alcohols by referring them to the type of water, H.O. Four principal types are now recognized, which are illustrated by the union of one, two, three, and four molecules of a monatomic element respectively with another monad, dyad, triad, or tetrad, as HH, OH2, NII3, CH.; and nearly all organic compounds may be regarded as formed by a combination of two or more of these types. The same compound may often be referred to different types. Thus, trichloride of phosphorus, PCl3, may be formed from three molecules of hydrochloric acid, 3HCl, by the substitution of one molecule of the triad phosphorus for three hydrogen monads; or from one molecule of ammonia, NHs, by the equivalent substitution of phosphorus for hydrogen. TYPE-SETTING MACHINE. See PRINTING. TYPE WRITERS, mechanical contrivances for writing or printing with a system of movable types instead of a pen. They involve: 1, a position movement, for bringing type to a printing point; 2, an inking device; 3, an impression movement; and 4, a device for letter and line spacing. These elements have been combined in a variety of ways. The most primitive is that in which the types are engraved on a cylindrical bar, which bar is revolved on its axis and also moved backward or forward by the hand of the operator, to present the desired type to the common printing point. This bar is then depressed, thereby delivering the impression through a saturated ribbon upon a sheet of paper wrapped around a cylinder placed at right angles with the type-carrying impression bar. To the paper cylinder a rotary and a longitudinal movement are imparted for the purpose of accomplishing the letter and line space. Nearly the reverse of this is the machine in which the types are arranged on a sliding rod or a narrow bed, and the impression is given by a bar or lever, the impression point of which is equal in size to the face of a letter. This machine was designed to form wax matrices for stereotype moulds, but can be used for printing by interposing paper and inking ribbon between the type and the impression bar. A combination of the essential elements of these two machines was patented in the United States in 1868, the types being arranged on a plate in parallel rows, and the impression given by a plunger or striker. All necessary movements in this machine are accomplished by mechanical means, the operator being simply required to move or depress a key corresponding to the letter desired to be printed. Another class of type writers may be generally described as consisting of a letter wheel or disk, on the periphery of which the types are engraved, which type wheel is revolved on its axis for the purpose of presenting the desired letter to the printing point, after which either paper or wheel is moved to give the impression. Another method of type writing is by means of a section of a globe or hemisphere, having a series of perforations from circumference to centre, in which are placed sliding plungers. On the inner end of each plunger is engraved a type, and on the outer end, upon a button or knob, the corresponding letter. These plungers are directed toward a common centre or printing point, and the paper is fed past this point to produce the letter and line space. The principal mechanical device of another type-writing machine consists of an arrangement of key levers of varying lengths, which levers are made to pass each other and present their type-bearing ends at a common printing point.-The Sholes and Glidden type writer consists of a series of swinging type bars of equal length, pivoted on the circumference of a circle, in such manner that their type-bearing ends, when brought to the printing point, will strike at the centre of the circle. By this means a series of type bars of uniform length are caused to present their type at a common printing point. The paper is fed past this point, to accomplish the letter and word spacing, by the longitudinal movement FIG. 1.-Sholes and Glidden Type Writer. A. The bank of keys. B. Type-lever disk, showing one lever in printing position. C. Space bar. D. Space bale and yoke. E. Wheel and axle for return of paper car. F. paper car turned back upon its hinge to expose printing. of a paper car, bearing a cylindrical platen, which platen is moved upon its axis a certain distance to accomplish the line spacing. The movement of the paper car past the printing point is effected by a spring escapement, and governed by a bale or lever which is moved by the depression of any key. Fig. 1 represents a front view of the Sholes and Glidden type writer, with working parts exposed. A saturated inking ribbon is interposed between the type and paper, and is moved automatically through the slots shown on each side of the disk.-A type writer recently invented by L. S. Crandall of New York consists mainly of a vibrating platen and paper feed arranged in connection with a series of type bars, which are provided with more than one type and operated by oscillating finger levers in such manner that, according to the backward or forward motion of the same, two adjoining types are printed on a common centre. The number of centres may be increased, in proportion to the number of types on the bars, by definite vibrations of the platen. For example, if there are six types on a bar, two of them are brought to the printing point in the manner above stated, and to utilize the remaining four one forward and one backward vibration of the platen is required. The types are placed on eight bars, arranged in the segment of a circle, and connected with eight finger cups by oscillating levers. Two thumb keys, with connecting mechanism, effect the transverse movements of the platen. The longitudinal movement of platen, for accomplishing the letter space, is by common means. This machine, being operated by the fingers without changing position of hands, may be used by the blind with facility, but the reading requires sight. In fig. 2, 1 represents a side elevation, showing the arrangement of its principal elements; 2 and 3 are detail side views of the finger lever and type bar, showing their duplex motion. The type bars A are so connected with the finger levers B, and stationary supporting arms C, that a double action may be imparted to them simultaneously with their swinging motion toward the printing points. The double action throws the lever a fixed distance in a forward or backward direction, and thereby admits the use of two types on each type bar for each printing point or centre. The double action of the type bar is produced by projecting cams or shoulders, D, which, by the forward or backward oscillation of the finger levers, are thrown into contact with corresponding projections or recesses, E F, of the fixed arm C, so as to define the extent of movement required for the coupled pair of types to strike their printing point on the platen, G.-In the "Zachos steno-phonotype reporter" the types are placed on twelve shuttle bars, according to a definite scheme, and two or more of the bars may be placed TYPHA TYPHA (Gr. Tipos, a fen), a genus of monocotyledonous plants, growing in fenny or marshy places, in this country popularly called cat-tail, and in England bulrush (a name here given exclusively to scirpus) and also reedmace. With one other genus (sparganium) this makes up the small family typhacea, which in a systematic arrangement is grouped with the aroids. Typhas are found in most parts of the globe. They have perennial creeping rootstocks, sessile, linear, and nerved leaves, and monœcious flowers, crowded in a spike at the end of the stem; the flowers have neither calyx nor corolla, their place being supplied by numerous long hairs; the upper part of the spike consists of stamens only, intermingled with Cat-tail (Typha latifolia). hairs, and the lower and more dense portion is made up of minute pistils, surrounded by and closely packed in numerous brown hairs; the Ovary ripens into a small one-seeded nut, upon a stalk, surrounded by the copious down of the enlarged hairs. The best known species is the common or broad-leaved cat-tail (typha latifolia), found all over this and nearly all other countries; it is often 8 or 10 ft. high, and in some localities occupies the marsh to the exclusion of all other vegetation. The leaves are flat, and the spike is a foot or more long, with no interval between the staminate and pistillate portions; the stamens, when they have performed their office, fall away, leaving the upper portion of the stem bare. Our only other species is the small or narrow-leaved cat-tail (T. angustifolia), which is much smaller; the leaves are narrower, and channelled at the base; the spikes are more slender, with usually a space, often an inch long, between the pistillate and staminate portions; the two grow together, though this is much the less common, and all the characters which distinguish them are variable. In autumn the spikes disintegrate, and in localities where the plants abound the air is annoyingly filled with the copious down. The dried down has been used in beds as a substitate for feathers; but unless the ticking is very tight, or waxed on the inside, the hairs will work through and annoy the sleeper. At present it is largely manufactured into a nonconducting covering for steam pipes and boilers. The quantity of foliage produced by these plants in favorable localities is immense, and it now nearly all goes to waste; unsuccessful attempts have been made to utilize it as paper stock. In France, where it is called massette, the leaves of cat-tail are used in the nurseries as a ligature in budding. TYPHOID FEVER. See FEVERS, vol. vii., p. 167. TYPHON, in Greek mythology, the personification of volcanic phenomena and violent winds. The common account made Typhon the son of Tartarus and Gæa, destined to revenge the defeat of the Titans by the Olympian gods. According to Pindar, his head reached to the stars, his eyes darted fire, his hands extended from the east to the west, terrible serpents were twined about the middle of his body, and 100 snakes took the place of fingers on his hands. Between him and the gods there was a dreadful war. Jupiter finally killed him with a flash of lightning, and buried him under Mt. Etna.-For Typhon (or Set) in Egyptian mythology, see DEMONOLOGY, Vol. v., p. 794, and OSIRIS. TYPHOON. See HURRICANE.. TYPHUS. See FEVERS, Vol. vii., p. 166. TYRANT, in ornithology. See KING BIRD. TYRE (in classical writers, Tyrus; in the Hebrew Scriptures, Tzor, rock), the wealthiest and most powerful city of Phoenicia, founded by the Sidonians, in a naturally strong position on the coast of the Mediterranean, 23 m. S. of Sidon. In later times it extended over a small adjacent island, the new part gradually becoming the more important, and the old receiving the name of Paletyrus or Old Tyre, now called Ras el-Ain. The latter is designated in the historical books of the Old Testament as the "stronghold" or "fortress" (mibtzar) Tzor, while, no doubt in allusion to its insular part, the city is called by Isaiah the "stronghold of the sea," and described by Ezekiel, in his glowing picture of its wealth, splendor, and maritime power, as situated "in the heart of the seas." On its site now stands a poor village called Sur. The island on which the town stood was originally severed from another small island bearing the temple of Melkart; but when the latter was rebuilt by Hiram, the little arm of the sea between the two islands was filled up, and by means of embankments toward the south the extent of the island was more than doubled. On the land thus obtained was built a new quarter of the city, which the Greeks called Eurychoron. Tyre was protected on all sides by dikes, and surrounded by fortified enclosures. Hiram built a palace in this insular town, which constantly grew in importance, while Palatyrus was neglected and became comparatively insignificant. Both parts withstood a long siege by the Assyrians (under Shalmaneser according to Josephus, but more probably under Sargon), but only that built on the island is believed to have successfully resisted a longer one by Nebuchadnezzar; while Alexander the mother of Carthage have mostly been covered by the sea. The burial places still testify to the existence of the ancient city. Most of the tombs are rock-cut and subterranean. They contain generally more than one chamber, in the walls of which are recesses holding embalmed corpses in coffins. There are also the ruins of a Christian cathedral, which Eusebius dedicated in 324 and describes in his ecclesiastical history. It was restored by the crusaders, and in it were placed the remains of the emperor Frederick Barbarossa. An earthquake destroyed the rebuilt town in the beginning of the 13th century. In 1874 the tract of land on which the cathedral was situated was purchased by the German government for the purpose of excavating it, and the edifice has been partly unearthed. (For the history of Tyre, see РHŒNICIA.) TYROL (Ger. also Tirol), a crownland or province of Cisleithan Austria, bounded N. by Bavaria, E. by Salzburg and Carinthia, S. by Italy, and W. by Switzerland; area, including Vorarlberg, 11,325 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 885,789, nearly two thirds of German and the rest of Italian descent, and all Roman Catholics. The principal towns are Innspruck, the capital, Brixen, Trent, Bregenz (in Vorarlberg), and Botzen, the first four respectively the capitals of the four circles into which the province is divided. It is as mountainous and picturesque as Switzerland, being traversed by several chains of the Alps. The northern chain is known as the Tyrolese or German, and the southern as the Trent Alps, the latter joining on the east the Carnic Alps. The Rhætian Alps, which occupy the centre, and are the lofti est mountains in Austria, embrace the Ortlerspitze (12,800 ft.), on the confines of Tyrol, Italy, and Switzerland, terminate in the N. E. part of Tyrol; and the Gross-Glockner (about 12,500 ft. according to the latest measurements), the highest point of the Noric Alps, rises on the confines of Tyrol, Carinthia, and Salzburg. Many of the summits are above the line of perpetual snow, and more than 150 sq. m. is covered with glaciers. These chains are crossed by some of the lowest Alpine passes, the best known being the Brenner pass, traversed by the railway from Innspruck to Botzen. The Inn and Adige are the largest rivers besides the Rhine, which separates Vorarlberg from Switzerland. Lakes Constance and Garda are partly in the province, on the N. W. and S. W. borders respectively. The climate is generally severe except in the south. About one third of the whole surface is covered by perpetual snows, glaciers, and barren rocks, and an equal space by forests; the rest consists of pasture and arable land. total value of landed property in 1870 was estimated at about 300,000,000 florins, and of cattle at 23,500,000 florins. Maize and other grain, fruit, wine, and silk are produced. Goats and sheep abound, as well as the chamois, hares, marmots, and eagles. The minerals include gold, iron, copper, lead, and coal. Lace, embroidery, gloves, hardware, and toys are made, and there is an active transit trade and general commerce. About 30,000 Tyrolese annually migrate in summer and return in autumn. The country is rich in schools, including a university at Innspruck. The Tyrolese are a fine-looking race, wearing picturesque cos The TYRONE tames, and are noted for their national songs, piety, patriotism, and industry. In early times the country was inhabited by Rhætian and Celtic tribes. Under the reign of Augustus it became part of Rhætia. (See RHETIA.) Subsequently it was occupied successively by various races, and was ultimately divided into petty states or lordships, tributary to the dukes of Bavaria, among which the duchy of Meran was the most important. These were finally united, and in 1364 were annexed to the duchy of Austria by Duke Rudolph IV., to whom Margaret, surnamed Maultasch, the heiress of Tyrol, had ceded her rights. After various changes Tyrol was inherited in 1490 by Maximilian, the future emperor of Germany, and after new changes finally reunited with the main line of the house of Austria in 1665. By virtue of the treaty of Presburg (Dec. 26, 1805), the country passed into the possession of Bavaria. This gave rise to the insurrection under Andreas Hofer in 1809, during which the women fought by the side of the men, and hundreds of them were slain. (See HOFER.) Austria recovered Tyrol in 1814. The local constitution dates from 1861. The diet consists of 68 members, including the prince-archbishop of Salzburg, whose jurisdiction extends over part of Tyrol, the two prince-bishops of Trent and Brixen, the rector of the university, 4 clerical delegates, 10 of the landholding aristocracy, 13 of large cities, 3 of chambers of commerce and industry, and 34 of rural communities. They are elected for six years. The president of the diet is appointed by the emperor. Vorarlberg has its own constitution and diet. The Tyrol diet elects 10 members to the Reichstag. The Italian or Welsh Tyrolese, who inhabit the southern districts, favor a union with Italy, but Garibaldi's attempt in 1866 to wrest these districts from Austria proved abortive. The ultramontane party preponderates excepting in some of the larger cities, and recent attempts to diminish the influence of the clergy encountered a violent opposition.-See Hormayr, Geschichte der gefürsteten Grafschaft Tirol (2 vols., Tübingen, 1806-'8), and Das Land Tirol und der Tirolerkrieg von 1809 (2 vols., Leipsic, 1845); Egger, Geschichte Tirols von den ältesten Zeiten bis in die Neuzeit (2 vols., Innspruck, 1872-14); Miss R. H. Busk, "The Valleys of Tyrol" (London, 1874); H. Baden Pritchard, Tramps in the Tyrol " (London, 1874); Steub, Drei Sommer in Tyrol (3 vols., enlarged ed., Stuttgart, 1875); and W. A. Baillie Grohman, "Tyrol and the Tyrolese" (London, 1876). TYRONE, a N. county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster, bordering on Lough Neagh, which separates it from Antrim, and the counties of Armagh, Monaghan, Fermanagh, Donegal, and Londonderry; area, 1,260 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 215,668. The chief towns are Strabane, Dungannon, and Omagh, the capital. The surface is greatly diversified, and has many fertile plains and valleys. The only considerable rivers are the Foyle and Blackwater. TYTLER 99 Coal is found, but turf is the usual fuel. The Londonderry and Enniskillen railway passes through Tyrone near Strabane. TYRRELL, an E. county of North Carolina, bordering on Albemarle sound, and bounded E. by Alligator river; area, about 350 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 4,173, of whom 1,302 were colored. The surface is level and the soil sandy. A large portion of the county is covered with swamps and heavy forests of pine, cypress, and red cedar; and shingles, staves, tar, and turpentine are extensively exported. The chief productions in 1870 were 105,308 bushels of Indian corn, 22,544 of sweet potatoes, 507 bales of cotton, and 17,894 lbs. of rice. There were 306 horses, 2,478 cattle, 1,539 sheep, and 4,664 swine. Capital, Columbia. TYRTEUS, a Greek poet of the 7th century B. C., a native of Attica or of Lacedæmon. An ancient tradition recounts that, in the second Messenian war, the Spartans were commanded by an oracle to apply to the Athenians for a leader. In answer the Athenians sent Tyrtæus, a schoolmaster of low family and reputation, and deformed, as the most unfit person they could select for the purpose; but he so inspired the Spartans with his war songs, that the Messenians were subdued. His poems were of two kinds: marching songs in anapastic measures, to be sung with the music of the flute, and elegiac exhortations to constancy and courage. The fragments of them are in Gaisford's Poeta Minores Græci (translated into English verse by Polwhele, 1786-'92), and in Bergh's Pocta Lyrici Græci (3d ed., Leipsic, 1866). They have been newly collected and annotated by A. Lami (Leghorn, 1874). TYRWHITT, Thomas, an English author, born in London, March 29, 1730, died there, Aug. 15, 1786. He graduated at Oxford in 1750, and in 1756 was appointed under secretary of war, and in 1762 clerk of the house of commons. He resigned office in 1768. Two years previous to his death he was appointed a curator of the British museum. His principal works in English are "Observations on some Passages in Shakespeare" (8vo, Oxford, 1766), and an edition of Chaucer's " Canterbury Tales," with an "Essay on his Language and Versification, an Introductory Discourse, and Notes" (5 vols. 8vo, London, 1773-'8). He aided in the publication of Chatterton's "Poems by Rowley," and supported the authorship of them by Chatterton. He also published in Latin notes, animadversions, and conjectures on writings by Plutarch, Babrius (the supposed author of Esop's fables), Eschylus, Euripides, Aristophanes, Strabo, and others. His principal work in this department of literature was an edition of Aristotle's "Poetics," published posthumously in 1794. TYTLER. I. William, a Scottish author, born in Edinburgh, Oct. 12, 1711, died Sept. 12, 1792. He was a writer to the signet, but his reputation rests chiefly upon his "Historical and Critical Enquiry into the Evidence pro |