were idle. The value of the imports of woollen manufactures into the United States during the years ending June 30, 1874 and 1875, has been as follows:

KINDS.

Cloths and cassimeres.

Woollen rags, shoddy, mungo, waste, and flocks.

Shawls..

Blankets..

Carpets..

Dress goods.

Hosiery, skirts, and drawers..
Other manufactures...

Total.

1874.

$18,016,671

151,156 2,181,887 18,472

8,649,863

21,162,635

505,109 6,202,895

1875.

$13,680,288

149.109

2,143,498

12,604 2,643,932

653,761

5,587,024

$46,883,188 $44,609,704

|

ter sorting, the several packs of wool are separately scoured, washed, and dried. The scouring is effected by soaking the wool in stale urine, or in an alkaline lye heated to 120°; the washing, by placing the wool, after removal from the lye, within wire baskets in running water, or by rinsing in warm suds, and afterward in clean water; and the drying is much facilitated by subjecting the rinsed wool to pressure in passing it between iron rollers. If the cloth is not to be white, it is either wool19,759,488 dyed or piece-dyed. If the former, the dyeing follows directly on the scouring or washing. Common colors, as browns and olives, are dyed by the larger manufacturers; but the true colors, as blue, black, and green, and -Processes of Woollen Manufacture. If a piece those of all cloths of the smaller manufactories, of superfine broadcloth, as requiring in succes- are left to the special dyers. The process of sion all the operations upon the wool, yarn, willying or twillying (a term probably derived and fabric needful for woollens of any sort, be from winnowing) is analogous to that of battaken as the representative of the whole class, ting or scutching in cotton manufacture; the the following are the processes through which object is to disentangle and open the locks, and the materials are passed: 1, sorting the wool; free them of sand or other loose impurities. 2, scouring; 3, washing; 4, drying; 5, dyeing One of the best forms of willy is that in which (when dyed in the wool); 6, willying; 7, pick- a hollow truncated cone, with four bars proing or teasing; 8, moating; 9, oiling; 10, jected beyond but running parallel to its surscribbling; 11, plucking; 12, carding; 13, faces, and armed with iron spikes, revolves slubbing; 14, spinning; 15, reeling; 16, warp- 300 to 400 times per minute within an outer ing; 17, beaming; 18, singeing, sizing, and cylinder, armed on the inside with similar other preparation of the threads for-19, spikes. The wool, fed to the smaller end of weaving; 20, scouring; 21, dyeing (when dyed the cone by an endless apron, travels in rein the piece); 22, drying or tentering; 23, volving by virtue of centrifugal force to the burling; 24, milling or fulling; 25, scouring; larger; and after being thus opened and beat26, drying, or tentering, again; 27, raising, en up, it escapes into a wire cylinder or redressing, or teasling; 28, shearing; 29, boiling; ceptacle provided with a fan, which blows 30, brushing; 31, picking; 32, drawing and away the disengaged dust, and finally lays the marking; 33, pressing; 34, steaming; 35, fold- cleaned wool upon another apron in a coning or packing. The shearing and pressing are tinuous sheet. Coarser wools for cloths are sometimes repeated, the processes of picking, willied more than once, sometimes before dyedrawing, and marking then coming between ing, and again after oiling and scribbling. them on this second application. Of these Some larger impurities, such as the willy does processes, more than one half of which are not remove, as burs, pitch, or dirt, are then now effected by machinery, some have already picked out of the wool while spread upon a been considered in separate articles. (See wire screen, by boys or women; this includes CARDS, DYEING, FULLING, TEASEL, and WEAV- both the picking and moating, the persons ING.) Of the remaining processes, some are engaged being called wool moaters. The wool too simple to require particular description, is then spread upon a floor, sprinkled with and the others are too technical to be well un- olive oil, and well beaten with staves. It is derstood except by actual observation of the thus prepared for the scribbling machine, the processes themselves. The sorting of the purpose of which is further to open and wool, as determining the different qualities cleanse the fibres. This process is really a that shall be mixed for a given quality of cloth, coarser carding, effected by passing the wool is important. The qualities to be considered successively between several cylinders studded in this sorting are chiefly those of fineness, with rows of teeth or wires, and made to resoftness, trueness, strength, color, cleanness, volve rapidly; the wool is conveyed to the and weight, as previously explained. In the cylinders by an apron, and given forth at the English factories, the usual distinctions are last in a delicate sheet, which is wound on a into the grades known as "prime, choice, su- revolving roller. This operation also may be perhead, head, downrights, seconds, fine abb, repeated two or three times. From the cardcoarse abb, livery, and breech." In the United ing machine, through which the wool is afterStates, the grades made by merchants of pulled ward passed, it is delivered in the form of and clipped or fleece wools, and in the latter slender cylinders or pipes, called cardings." of short staple and long staple, or clothing and Slubbing, which is a preparatory spinning, is combing wools, are at the factories again sub-performed by the slubbing billy, and consists divided each into a definite number of sorts, in drawing out and twisting the cardings to presenting a regular gradation of quality. Af the state of a soft, weak thread. This is ef

by two men, succeeded some years since that of the gig mill, in which the teasels are set in the periphery of a cylinder; and in the most improved form of this, the teasels are arranged along longitudinal bars in the surface of the large cylinder, with interspaces between the bars, the whole having the appearance of an immense reel. The cylinder revolves rapidly, while the cloth, passing slowly from one roller to another, is brought against one side of it, and receives the action of the teasels. Owing to the readiness with which the points of the burs become soft when wet, and their comparative scarcity and high price, gig mills with what are called metallic teasels, or cards with fine metallic teeth, have been constructed; but though some of these perform satisfactorily, the natural teasels are still preferred. Of these 3,000 are not unfrequently consumed in dressing a single piece of cloth. The shearing of the nap thus raised to a proper and uniform length was, until the beginning of this century, performed by stretching the cloth over a stuffed table, and carefully clipping it with long hand shears; in the first mechanism the only change was in working similar shears by the machinery; but at present several more ingenious modes have been devised. Among the best of these is that invented by Mr. George Oldland of Gloucestershire in 1832. In this, the cloth, being made to move slowly along in a horizontal sheet, is passed directly beneath and in contact with a semicircular cutting edge or "ledger blade," extending across the width of the piece, while directly within this semicircle there is continually turned by a band from the machinery a revolving wheel fitting the curve of the former, and at once carrying and by suitable arrangements of teeth causing to revolve eight small circular cutters about its periphery; as these are thus made successively to play along the ledger blade, they form a sort of endless shears in the highest degree delicate and true. Superfine cloths are dressed and sheared several times in succession, being also once pressed before the last shearing. In the intervals of the preceding operations, or after their completion, the best cloths are now boiled, or "roll-boiled," being wound tightly round a cylinder and immersed for two or three hours in scalding water. The results of this process, patented by Messrs. Daniell and Wilkins of Tiverton in 1824, and improved by Mr. William Hirst of Leeds, are to prevent spotting of the cloth when used, and to impart to it a lustre which was unattainable by any previous process. Other

fected by means of several spindles set nearly upright in a frame, and receiving a turning motion, at the same time that the frame itself is made to recede (upon friction wheels running in rails beneath it) from a roller facing the spindles, and from which roller a carding is fed by the machinery to each spindle at the rate required; the spindles alternately draw out and wind the lengths of thread produced by movement of the carriage, the entire action being quite similar to that of Hargreaves's spinning jenny. (See COTTON MANUFACTURE.) Besides the workman managing the machine, another, or a child, is employed to put fresh cardings in place as they may be required. The proper spinning consists in bringing the soft yarn thus furnished to the fineness and firmness requisite for weaving; and the machinery and operation are again quite similar to those employed in spinning cotton. In view, however, of the variable lengths of the filaments of wool, the two pairs of drawing rollers between which it passes in spinning are so mounted as to be adjustable at different distances, so as neither to allow the soft thread to part between them from its undue length, nor to be broken when too short because of want of space for the fibres to slip one upon the other; while the greater elasticity of wool also allows the velocities of the two pairs of rollers to be so regulated as to produce a greater extension of the thread than in the case of cotton. After the preparation for and the process of weaving follows that of scouring the cloth, in order to remove the oil, sizing, dust, &c., introduced into it purposely or accidentally in the mean time; this is accomplished by beating the cloth with wooden mallets moved by machinery, while it lies in a sort of inclined trough, soap and water being first allowed to flow upon it, and afterward clear water. Piece dyeing and washing may then follow; otherwise, the cloth is next removed to the drying room, or stretched in the open air by means of hooks upon rails or tenter bars, and allowed to dry. Being removed when dry to a suitable room, the operation of burling follows, the burlers picking out of it irregular threads, hairs, and dirt; and the process of fulling then succeeds. (See FULLING.) After the cloth has been fulled one or more times, as may be required, it is again subjected to scouring, fullers' earth being now usually added to the water; and after rinsing, the cloth is again stretched upon the tenters and dried. The cloth in the fulled state has both its surfaces woolly or rough; and that sur-methods, as that of steaming the cloth while face which forms the proper face of the cloth, or either one of them if they do not differ, is then subjected to the operations of teasling and shearing. The object of the former process is to raise a sufficient number of fibres upon the surface, and of the latter to cut these to the proper length to form the pile or nap of the finished cloth. To the old plan of fixing the teasels in a hand frame worked over the piece VOL. XVI.-46

stretched or under pressure, though shorter, are said to be less advantageous. Brushing the cloth, which in any case next follows, is effected by passing the piece, while steamed, in contact with revolving cylinders studded with suitable brushes. Picking is then performed, to remove blemishes; and fine-drawing, to close any minute breaks in the fabric; and the usual trade marks, denoting quality, number,

&c., are then worked in at one end of the piece. | interlacing of fibres which is completed in The brushing is then again performed, and the piece folded is subjected between polished pressing boards to the action of a hydraulic press. A deceptive gloss may be produced in inferior cloths, by hot pressing by means of heating the iron plates; and in any case, with or without a final steaming and drying, the cloth is then folded and packed for sale. Such is a general description of the nature and order of the operations required in converting wool in the fleece into marketable cloths; though some of the less essential of these may not enter into the preparation of all the species of woollen goods, and in particular instances other slight deviations from the usual order besides those already named may occur. It would be impracticable to describe or enumerate the many minor changes or improvements connected especially with the working of the wool previous to carding, with the operation of spinning, and with those to which the cloth is subjected, and of which taken together a great number are every year patented, and many of them introduced into use, not only in this country and in England, but also in countries of continental Europe. We may mention, however, the machine introduced in 1858 by Mr. Archibald of Tillicoultry, Scotland, for piecing the cardings, so as to form them into a continuous length or roving; and that patented by Messrs. Tolson and Irving of England, for imparting to woollen cloths a metallic lustre, in which the yarn or piece is impregnated with a salt of copper, lead, or bismuth, and the metal then disengaged and left upon the fibre by exposure to steam charged with sulphuretted hydrogen. In the United States, in 1858, Mr. Waterman Smith of New Hampshire patented mechanism for keeping the soft woollen thread or sliver of other fibrous materials hot while being drawn, by passing it over or against heated surfaces, the objects being to render the fibres more soft and pliable than otherwise, and to straighten and elongate them in drawing; and Messrs. Kennedy and Plummer of Connecticut, in the same year, obtained a patent for a novel combination of tubes and drawing rollers, and means of working the rollers, by which the processes of drawing and twisting can be performed simultaneously, or either of them separately, and in consequence of which, when the two actions are combined, it is claimed that great convenience is secured, in the way of varying the relative degrees of draught and twist, to suit various lengths and quantities of fibre. Among woollen goods proper are broadcloths and narrow cloths, cassimeres (or kerseymeres), and beaver or double cloth, the last named of which, coarse and warm on one side, and presenting a finely finished surface on the other, was the invention of Daniell and Wilkins, in 1838.-Processes of Worsted Manufacture. The object in view in preparing the long wools for manufacture is not to produce that thorough

fulling, but rather to produce a simply spun and woven fabric. The chief preparation of the wool accordingly consists in obtaining the fibres in a straight and parallel condition; and this is effected by combing. The combing wools are themselves subdivided into the long and the short; the former, of lengths varying from 6 to 12 in., are chiefly used for carpets and other coarser goods; the latter, of lengths from 4 to 7 in., for hosiery, merinoes, &c. The principal processes are: 1, sorting; 2, scouring; 3, drying; 4, plucking; 5 (for certain fabrics only), carding; 6, combing; 7, breaking; 8, drawing; 9, roving; 10, spinning; 11, reeling; 12, weaving; 13, dyeing, &c. The wool may be scoured, and mainly dried by passing between rollers; but by the washing machine of Messrs. Petrie and Taylor, both the scouring and drying are more speedily and effectually performed. The wool, in this, is rapidly agitated in hot suds in an iron trough by iron rakes; and being then drawn from the trough by a cylinder with metallic teeth, it is briskly winnowed until dry. Plucking is performed by passing the wool through a machine in which spiked rollers beat up and separate the fibres. The combing of the wool is still performed by hand in some instances, though now more commonly by machinery. In hand combing, the workman uses as required either of two pairs of combs, one having three, the other two rows of long teeth; the rows in either case, from the outermost inward, growing successively shorter. The handle is set into the head of each comb at right angles to the direction of the teeth; and by means of holes, one vertically through the handle, the other entering it at the end, and of corresponding pins projecting from a comb post near the workman, and upon which the handle is to be fixed, the comb can be steadied when required. Near to each workman is also a comb pot, or stove. The teeth of the combs are placed in an opening in the top of the stove long enough to heat them. The workman meanwhile takes about four ounces of wool, sprinkles it with olive oil, and thoroughly rubs this through it with his hands. One of the heated combs, and after it the other, is affixed upon the comb post; among the teeth of each of them in succession the comber jerks or "lashes" one half the wool; and as each is thus charged he returns it, teeth and wool downward, into the heated space in the stove. When the wool is properly warmed, seating himself on a low stool, he holds one comb with the teeth upward by his left hand over his knees, and with the right hand works the other comb, the teeth of which point downward; and he continues this operation, using the teeth of either comb to straighten the wool on the other, and thus working through the wool from the outermost portions until the combs nearly meet. The fibres of the greater part of this quantity of wool are thus properly straightened, and

at Troy. In 1861 he secured Fortress Monroe | at Yale college in 1820, studied theology at by timely reenforcement, became commander Princeton, and from 1823 to 1825 was a tutor of the department of Virginia in August, occu- in Yale college. In 1825 he was licensed to pied Norfolk May 10, 1862, was commissioned preach, and from 1827 to 1830 studied the major general May 16, and in June was made Greek language and literature in Germany. On commander of the middle department with his return he was appointed professor of Greek headquarters at Baltimore. At the close of in Yale college, and in 1846 was chosen presithe war he retired from active service. dent of that institution, which office he resigned in 1871. He was ordained at the time of his inauguration. He has edited in Greek "The Alcestis of Euripides" (1833), "The Antigone of Sophocles" (1835), "The Electra of Sophocles" (1837), "The Prometheus of Eschylus" (1837), and "The Gorgias of Plato" (1842); and has published an "Introduction to the Study of International Law" (12mo, Boston, 1860; 4th ed., New York, 1874); “Essay on Divorce and Divorce Legislation" (1869); "Serving our Generation, and God's Guidance in Youth" (1871); and "The Religion of the Present and the Future" (1871). On questions of international law he is regarded as a publicist of weight and authority.

WOOLLETT, William, an English engraver, born in Maidstone, Kent, in 1735, died May 23, 1785. He engraved historical subjects and portraits, but was most successful in landscapes. His masterpieces are his "Niobe" and other plates after pictures by Richard Wilson, and the "Death of Wolfe" and the "Battle of La Hogue" after West. He was the first who united in one plate the methods of engraving by aquafortis, the burin, and the dry needle. WOOLMAN, John, an American Quaker preacher, born in Northampton, Burlington co., N. J., in 1720, died in York, England, in 1773. At the age of 21 he became a speaker in the meetings of the society of Friends. In 1746, in company with Isaac Andrews, he made a tour in the back settlements of Virginia, and from that time continued at intervals to visit the societies of Friends in the different portions of the colonies, supporting himself by working as a tailor. In 1763 he visited the Indians on the Susquehanna, and about 1772 went to England. His published works include "Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes" (1753; part ii., 1762); "Considerations on Pure Wisdom and Human Policy, on Labor, on Schools, and on the Right Use of the Lord's outward Gifts" (1768); "Considerations on the True Harmony of Mankind" (1770); and "A Word of Remembrance and Caution to the Rich." "The Journal of the Life and Travels of John Woolman in the Service of the Gospel" (1775) has been many times reprinted (with an introduction by John G. Whittier, Boston, 1871).

WOOLNER, Thomas, an English sculptor, born at Hadleigh, Suffolk, Dec. 17, 1825. He was elected a royal academician in 1874. His principal works are statues of Lord Bacon and Prince Albert, at Oxford; Macaulay, in Trinity college, Cambridge; William III., in Westminster hall; David Sassoon and Sir Bartle Frere, in Bombay; and busts of Tennyson, Carlyle, Darwin, Cobden, Gladstone, Sedgwick, Newman, Fairbairn, Rajah Brooke, Dickens, and Charles Kingsley. Among his imaginative works are statuettes of Ophelia, Elaine, and Guinevere. He is now (1876) engaged upon statues of Dr. Whewell for Cambridge, Lord Lawrence for Calcutta, Sir Cursetjee Jehangeer Readymoney for Bombay, and Lord Palmerston for Palace Yard, and a reredos for the chapel of Looton Hoo, Bedfordshire. He has published "My Beautiful Lady," a poem (London and Cambridge, 1863; 3d ed., 1866). WOOLSEY, Theodore Dwight, an American scholar, tenth president of Yale college, born in New York, Oct. 31, 1801. He graduated

WOOLSTON, Thomas, an English author, born in Northampton in 1669, died in London, Jan. 27, 1733. He was educated at Cambridge, where he became a fellow of Sydney Sussex college and received holy orders. In 1705 he published his "Old Apology for the Truth of the Christian Religion against the Jews and Gentiles revived." In 1727-'30 he published six "Discourses on the Miracles of Christ," the reality of which he denied; and for this he was convicted of blasphemy at Guildhall, and sentenced to a year's imprisonment and a fine of £100. Not being able to pay the fine, he died in confinement.

WOOLWICH, a parish of Kent, England, formerly an independent town, now a suburb of London, on the right bank of the Thames, 9 m. below London bridge; pop. in 1871, 35,557. It stands principally on elevated ground close to the river, with marshes to the east and west. There are several churches and charitable institutions, a town hall, a mechanics' institute, and numerous schools. The greater part of the population is dependent for support upon the government works. The royal dock yard was closed in 1869, after being employed for naval purposes nearly 300 years. The royal arsenal, covering more than 100 acres, is the principal depot of artillery and munitions of war for both the navy and the army. It contains founderies and factories for the mantfacture of warlike stores, magazines, a model room with a pattern of every article used in the artillery service, immense quantities of shot and shell, and extensive barracks. A practising ground is attached, nearly 3 m. in range. The government ordnance is all proved at Woolwich. The garrison usually amounts to about 3,500 men. An academy for educating military officers, more particularly for the artillery and engineers, was founded at Woolwich in 1719, and is the principal military school in England. At North Woolwich, on