TURKEY ted in the south, rice, cotton, rye, and barley in the central provinces, and wheat, barley, and millet in the north. Though producing forest trees of the same families with those of European Turkey, the predominant trees of Asiatic Turkey are of different genera. The cedar, cypress, and evergreen oak crown the lower summits and thrive on the slopes of the Lebanon and Taurus; the sycamore and mulberry occupy the lower hills, and the olive, fig, citron, orange, pomegranate, and vine flourish luxuriantly in the lowlands. Mesopotamia abounds in dates, and in wheat, barley, rice, maize, tobacco, hemp, flax, and cotton.-Among wild animals of European Turkey are the wild boar, bear, badger, marten, wolf, wild dog, fox, civet, wild cat, bat, squirrel, beaver, hedgehog, mole, hare, fallow deer, roe, and chamois. Of birds there are over 250 species, including about 100 songsters. Game is plentiful, especially in the mountains. Fish are numerous, embracing all the known species of the Mediterranean; tunny, coral, and sponge fisheries are extensive; trout and other fish abound in the rivers, and leeches in the marshes. In Asiatic Turkey, the lion is still found E. of the Euphrates; the striped hyena, lynx, panther, wild boar, and wild ass occur in Mesopotamia; the bear, wolf, wild hog, and jackal in Asia Minor; the leopard, hedgehog, jerboa, wolf, hare, and mole throughout Syria; and the Syrian bear on Mt. Lebanon. The camel, horses of the best breeds, the ass, ox, sheep, and goats, including the celebrated Angora species, are There are few countries for which nature has done as much as for Turkey; few in which the resources are so little developed; and, considering that the territories of the empire embrace those of ancient Assyria, Babylonia, Palestine, Phoenicia, Lydia, Ionia, &c., hardly any in which successive wars and misrule have destroyed so much of the results of former activity, wealth, and magnificence. For fuller descriptions see the articles on the separate parts of the empire (Albania, Armenia, Asia Minor, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Candia, Cyprus, &c.), and on its principal mountain ranges, rivers, and cities. The races of Turkey are divided approximately as follows: numerous. RACES. Turks proper or Osmanlis.. 57 and the decisions of his immediate successors comprised in the code of laws (Multeka), are binding upon the sultan. The laws and regulations (Kannon Nameh) established in the 16th century by Solyman the Magnificent constituted for a long period the basis of the administration of government and justice, and are still revered. But the Koran alone is the supreme authority in religion, law, and all spheres of government and life. It allows four wives, in addition to whom the sultan and other persons of rank and wealth may have unlimited numbers of concubines and female attendants or slaves. The masses of the poor can hardly support more than one wife, and even among the higher classes polygamy does not generally prevail. The rigid confinement of the females in the harem is in accordance with the Koran, which enjoins seclusion and modesty, and the veiling of the face. The ladies of the higher classes are averse to these restrictions, and are lightly veiled; but the masses of the orthodox Turkish women, especially in the interior, wear thick veils and reveal only the eyes. The Turks proper or Osmanlis, the Turkomans, Arabs, and Tartars are wholly, and the Kurds mostly Mohammedans; and a small portion of the Slavic race are of the same religion. The Mohammedans constitute a vast majority in Asiatic Turkey, but are a minority in every European vilayet except Prisrend and Scutari and the metropolitan district. The sultan is regarded as the successor of the prophet, and on that account as the head of all believers. Even rulers of remote Mohammedan communities have at various times recognized the sultan as the chief of all Mussulmans and invoked his protection. As the Koran constitutes both a code of law, of religion, and of ethics, there is a close connection between the ministers of religion and the interpreters of jurisprudence (muftis, mollahs, &c.). Together these form the body of the ulema (see ULEMA), governed by the sheikh ul-Islam, the only dignitary who holds office for life. The Christians of Turkey belong mostly to the Greek church, including about 6,000,000 members, mostly subject to the patriarch of Constantinople. The Armenian church is confined to the Armenian race. The head of the Gregorian Armenians is the patriarch in the Turkish capital, who ranks below the catholicos in Russian Armenia, but is otherwise entire1,000,000 ly independent of him. A portion of the 2,000,000 Greeks and Armenians, Nestorians, and Jacobites have united with the Roman Catholic church, but keep up separate organizations as 200,000 united Greeks, united Bulgarians, united Ar80,000 menians, Chaldeans, united Syrians, and Ma100,000 ronites. The number of Roman Catholics, in200,000 70,000 80,000 20,000 20,000 In Europe. 2,200,000 Turkomans, chiefly in N. Mesopotamia Greeks. 1,000,000 Armenians Slavs (half Bulgarians, half Serbs). 60.000 8,550,000 Roumans or Wallachs. Albanians or Arnauts. 200.000 1,200,000 Syrians and Chaldeans. Kurds Arabs Gypsies.. Jews Tartars Total In Asia. 8,620,000 1,000,000 8,500,000 18,200,000 The state religion is Mohammedan, and the alleged sayings and opinions of the prophet, clusive of the members of the oriental churches who recognize the supremacy of the pope, is estimated at about 300,000 in European and from 300,000 to 400,000 in Asiatic Turkey. All these denominations, as well as the Protestants (whose converts are chiefly won from the Armenians by American missionaries) and the Jews, are recognized by the sultan as independent religious communities, with the privilege of maintaining their own ecclesiastical organizations. Among the numerous peculiar sects are the Druses and Ansaries in Syria. The antagonism between the various religious bodies is stronger in Turkey than anywhere else, and they are far from observing toward each other the tolerance which is granted to them by the government. A new educational law promulgated in 1869 provided for the establishment of elementary schools for both sexes in every commune, of schools of a higher grade and gymnasiums or colleges in larger towns, of industrial and normal schools, and of a university, after German models, which was opened in Constantinople in February, 1870. There have since been established there a school of law, a military school, one for engineers, and one of artillery, and a naval school on the island of Khalki in the sea of Marmora. The government has declared its intention to make the schools more and more national, and to abolish the old Arabian system of instruction. Outside of the capital the progress of education is slow, chiefly owing to the innate aversion of the Turkish mind for mental effort. The government, however, seeks to promote national literature, and recently passed a copyright law. The Christian communities strive to emulate European systems of education, especially the Greeks and the Protestants, and there are several good Catholic schools; but the most efficient institutions are the Robert college (American) at Constantinople, the new Protestant college at Beyrout, and the schools of the Prussian deaconesses in various places. -The empire abounds in archæological treasures. The most important results have been achieved in the present century by the excavations in Assyria, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Cyprus. Turkey contains a number of foreign (called Frank) or extra-territorial communities, placed under the protection of resident diplomatic and consular agents. They originated in the Levant trading companies, many of the early English, French, Italian, German, and other settlers and adventurers becoming permanent residents; and their numbers have been greatly increased by the rapid progress of European monopolies in railways, finance, trade, and industry, and in all Turkish enterprises. The representation of foreign powers in Turkey dates from the 16th century, and has been protected by the socalled "capitulations" and subsequent treaty stipulations, affording full safety to diplomatic and consular officers, and vesting them with judicial powers and every right necessary to the interests of their constituencies. These include the richest Greek and English merchants, whose influence is almost boundless through their ambassadors and consuls. The native Christian subjects are called rayahs, and, whether Greeks or Slavs, chiefly belong to the Greek church, of the principal branch of which the czar is the supreme head, whence results the great influence of Russia. The social equality which prevails among the Mussulmans enables persons of the lowest condition to rise to the highest; but the rayahs have had no such opportunities, and, in addition to their hard struggles for subsistence, they have borne the brunt of Moslem fanaticism since the conquest of Constantinople, when the most influential Greeks (Fanariotes) made themselves serviceable to their conquerors, while the masses of the Christians were regarded as outlaws. Shut out from all contact with European civilization, they lost their mental energy and ambition, and became infected with Asiatic vices without acquiring the redeeming qualities of independence possessed by their conquerors, toward whom their outward obsequiousness and secret hatred increased in the measure of their helplessness and demoralization. The church became, under these circumstances, not only the idol of their faith, but also the only hope of their ultimate redemption through the influence of Christian nations. This abnormal condition of the rayah populations has more than once called for the intervention of foreign powers, while remaining a chronic source of disaffection and disturbance. The successive concessions which they received during the present century, under the pressure of disastrous events, have not materially lessened their burdens, although they now apparently enjoy equality before the law under the jurisdiction of mixed courts. They are also exceptionally admitted to official positions, and the latest decrees of the sultan remove all previous disabilities in this regard. But the Mohammedans respect no laws excepting those sanctioned by the Koran, and the officers charged with the execution of imperial decrees are generally opposed to the boons they are intended to confer on Christians. Many of the Turkish officeholders are also notorious for venality and incapacity, especially in remote provinces, beyond the immediate control of the vigilant foreign ambassadors at the capital. The Armenian rayahs have greater ethnological affinities with the Turks than the Greeks and Slavs. Many of them prosper in official positions in the capital, and as dragomans of foreign embassies, for which they are specially qualified by their adroitness in managing the pashas and their linguistic attainments. They are also clever financiers, and in that departinent eclipse both Greeks and Jews. But in Armenia proper their condition is made so deplorable by the Turkish officials and by the fearful ravages of the Kurds, that hundreds of Armenians have lately embraced Mohammedanism as the only alternative against these persecutions. The great Greek merchants are not rayals, but protected foreigners. The Jews are mostly poor. They are descendants of refugees from Spanish persecution, retain a Spanish dialect, and are obliged to wear a distinctive costume, except ing a few whose wealth secures them special | pashas.-The grand vizier presides over the privileges. They are despised by the Turks council of ministers. This comprises the grand and periodically persecuted by the Greeks. vizier's councillor, who acts as minister of the The Turks fully respect only foreigners in- interior, the president of the supreme council vested with official rank or with powerful pro- of justice, who acts as minister of justice, and tection. In the absence of such prestige, the the ministers of foreign affairs, war, finance, slightest provocation is apt to reveal their in- navy, commerce, police, public works and quarnate prejudices against the giaour, though, antines, education, and archives, the superinwhen not under the influence of fanatical or tendent of mosque property, and the president criminal passion, they are remarkable for their of the council of state established in 1868. dignity and courtesy, and for honesty in their The department of taxes, the united postal and private relations.-The Turkish government, telegraph services, and the mining department or Sublime Porte, is an absolute monarchy, the are respectively in charge of directors general. rule of which is vested in a sultan (officially The ministerial council corresponds to the Eucalled padishah, supreme ruler) of the dynasty ropean cabinets, while the new council of state of Othman. The sultan is allowed to govern is intended for the preliminary discussion of in the most arbitrary manner, except in mat- new laws and public measures. This body ters of religion and law, which require the con- comprises an executive department, and four currence of the sheikh ul-Islam (grand mufti). others, devoted to finance, justice, education, The succession to the throne has from the first and commerce, and consists of 50 Mohammebeen vested in the oldest surviving male mem- dan and Christian members chosen by the sulber of the ruling family. The late sultan, Ab- tan. A scheme for the reorganization of the dul-Aziz, wished to secure the throne to his police and of the collectors of taxes, the latter eldest son Yusuf, making the succession direct to supersede the policemen (zaptichs), was in from father to son, a change which was estab- 1876 in process of adoption. In 1868 a sulished in Egypt in 1866; but he encountered preme court for civil and criminal cases was an invincible opposition to any deviation from substituted for the former grand council of the ancient rule, and was succeeded by the justice, and the office of attorney general was heir apparent, his nephew Mehemet Murad created early in 1876. There are courts of (born in 1840), the eldest son of the sultan appeal in the capital of each vilayet, and variAbdul-Medjid. Former sultans have frequent- ous superior tribunals exist all over the counly secured the succession to their sons by put- try, about 100 subordinate tribunals, and mixed ting to death immediately on their accession courts for settling cases between Mohammeall their other male relatives. The civil list dans and non-Mohammedans, besides the conof Abdul-Aziz was raised from £900,000 in sular courts. This divided jurisdiction natu1868 to £1,200,000 in 1873, and he annually rally results in complications. The ancient received besides £500,000 for pensions and "capitulations" relating to foreign jurisdiction charities, derived an additional revenue from were recently abolished in Egypt as altogether crown domains and from presents, and might obsolete, and they have been modified in Turat his pleasure raise unlimited amounts. His key proper, but without satisfactorily settling actual annual expenditure was estimated at £4,- the questions at issue. Among the treaties 500,000. This extravagance in the midst of na- with foreign nations now in force are extrational insolvency and peril shook even the loy-dition and reciprocal naturalization treaties realty of the orthodox Moslem, especially as the cently concluded with the United States.-The people were everywhere ground down by tithes crown lands (miri) include the larger portion and by the rapacity of tax-gatherers and other of the soil. They are granted on lease, and forofficials. The empire is divided into vilayets, feited if the cultivation is neglected for three under governors general (valis). They are sub- years. The land appropriated to mosques and divided into sanjaks (districts) under gover- for other religious purposes, to schools, and nors (mutessarifs), and these into cazas (cir- to charitable institutions, consists of real escles) under lieutenant governors (kaimakams), tate originally granted by the crown (rakuf and the latter into nahiyes (communes). The el-zarai), and of private legacies for the same mayors of villages are called mukhtars. The purposes (vakuf el-karamain). The grants of former eyalets or pashalics have been united land (malikaneh) originally made for military or changed into vilayets. The provincial gov- purposes and for the pilgrimages to Mecca are ernors, who generally hold the rank of pasha, hereditary and free from tithes. The fourth formerly had the right of sentencing persons and least considerable form of tenure is freeto death; this has been withdrawn, but they hold property (mulkh), chiefly consisting of city still rule arbitrarily, particularly in remote dis- estates and of land adjoining villages. Fortricts, and are frequently in collision with the eigners can now hold real estate in their own rayahs and the protected foreigners. Even names, on the same terms as natives. The after their proven dishonesty or unfitness, they great Turkish landed proprietors are far more are generally not dismissed from the service, independent of the government than the landbut only transferred to a less important office. ed aristocracy of Great Britain and continental New territorial divisions are often created Europe; the most ancient and powerful of them merely in order to make places for influential | in Aidin, Brusa, and other parts of the empire, |