with great distinction. From 1835 to 1852 he was a member of parliament.

WAKULLA, a N. county of Florida, bordering on Appalachee bay, bounded W. by the Ocklockonee river, and E. by St. Mark's river; area, 504 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 2,506, of whom 944 were colored. The surface is generally level and the soil fertile. It is intersected by a branch of the Jacksonville, Pensacola, and Mobile railroad. The chief productions in 1870 were 47,274 bushels of Indian corn, 8,726 of sweet potatoes, 2,800 lbs. of rice, 258 bales of cotton, 34 hogsheads of sugar, and 10,727 gallons of molasses. There were 184 horses, 1,617 milch cows, 2,605 other cattle, 299 sheep, and 3,800 swine. Capital, Crawfordsville.

WALCHEREN, the westernmost island of the Netherlands, in the province of Zealand, in lat. 51° 30' N., lon. 3° 30' E., between the E. and W. mouths of the Scheldt; area, about 100 sq. m.; pop. about 40,000. It is surrounded by dikes, and is very fertile. The chief towns are Middelburg and Flushing (Vliessingen), the latter fortified. The Walcheren expedition of England against Napoleon, planned in 1807 by her continental allies, reached the Dutch coast only after many delays at the end of July, 1809; it consisted of 175 armed vessels and 41,000 soldiers. Lord Chatham, its chief commander, lost his time in the reduction of Flushing, which was not effected till Aug. 16, Antwerp, which had been intended as the main point of attack, being in the mean time reënforced and protected by Bernadotte. About 7,000 men died of malaria at Middelburg, and the island was finally evacuated before the end of the year.

WALCKENAËR, Charles Athanase, baron, a French author, born in Paris, Dec. 25, 1771, died there, April 27, 1852. He studied at Glasgow and Oxford; served as director of transportation in the army of the Pyrenees in 1793; afterward studied in the polytechnic school; and became a mayor of Paris in 1816, and prefect of the department of Nièvre in 1824 and of Aisne in 1826. In 1830 he finally left the public service, and in 1840 became perpetual secretary of the academy of inscriptions. He published Essai sur l'histoire de l'espèce humaine (1798); Histoire abrégée des insectes des environs de Paris (1802); Tableau des aranéides (1805); Le monde maritime (4 vols. 8vo, 1818); Nouvelle collection des relations de voyage (21 vols., 1826-231); Analyse géographique des itinéraires des anciens, &c. (3 vols. 8vo, 1839); Histoire de la vie et des poésies d'Horace (1840); and Mémoires sur Madame de Sévigné (5 vols., 1842-52, incomplete). A collection of his more important works has been published under the title Œuvres choisies (Paris, 1862 et seq.). WALDECK, a principality in N. W. Germany, embracing Waldeck proper, which is situated between the Prussian provinces of Hesse-Nassau and Westphalia, and the county of Pyrmont, between Lippe-Detmold, Brunswick, and the Prussian provinces of Westphalia and Han

over; total area, 438 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 56,224, of whom 49,136 were in Waldeck and the rest in Pyrmont, and chiefly Protestants. Waldeck proper is mountainous and woody, drained by the Eder and other small tributaries of the Weser, and possessing a poor and stony but carefully cultivated soil, and yields sufficient grain and potatoes for home consumption. Large flocks of sheep producing fine wool are raised, and butter and cheese are exported. There are mines of iron and copper, marble and alabaster quarries, and salt springs. Pyrmont consists of a small valley watered by the Emmer, and tolerably productive, but is principally noteworthy for the mineral springs at the fashionable watering place of that name. Waldeck is a constitutional principality, its present constitution dating from 1852. It has been since Jan. 1, 1868, under Prussian administration, to continue for a term of ten years, in accordance with the treaty of "accession" concluded July 18, 1867, and ratified by the principality on Oct. 22. The executive power is vested in the prince alone; the legislature consists of a single chamber of 15 members. Its revenue and expenditures were each estimated in 1875 at 1,571,690 marks; more than half of the total revenue is absorbed by the civil list of the reigning_prince, George Victor (born Jan. 14, 1831). The public debt amounted in 1875 to 2,596,800 marks. The paper money (630,000 marks) was in process of withdrawal from circulation. The diet meets annually at Arolsen, the residence of the prince.-The princes of Waldeck trace their origin to Witikind. They were originally counts, but became princes in 1682. GEORGE FREDERICK (1664-'92) took service under the emperor Leopold I. in Holland, who made him prince of the empire and field marshal. He commanded the Franconian troops at the siege of Vienna by the Turks in 1683. Returning to Holland, he was appointed marshal general of the army of the United Provinces, and was defeated by Marshal Luxembourg at the battle of Fleurus in 1690. CHRISTIAN AUGUSTUS (born in 1744, died near Lisbon in 1798) early entered the service of Austria, rose rapidly in the army, distinguished himself against the Turks, was appointed lieutenant general in the war against France in 1792, lost an arm at the siege of Thionville, took part in 1793 in the attack on the lines of Weissenburg, and captured Fort Louis. In 1794 he became quartermaster general of Flanders, and in 1797 chief commander of the Portuguese army.

WALDECK, Jean Frédéric de, baron, a French artist, born in Paris, March 16, 1766, died there, April 30, 1875. He early visited South Africa, and subsequently went with the army to Italy and Egypt. He made archæological explorations in Chili and Guatemala in 1819, and long resided in Mexico. The French government in 1826 granted him a pension of 2,000 francs. In the last 40 years of his life he lived in Paris, and he retained his mental powers to the end. He published Voyage ar

chéologique et pittoresque dans le Yucatan (Paris, 1837). Two of his Mexican pictures were exhibited in 1869, under the title of Loisir du centenaire. His age was contested, but he was generally regarded as a centenarian.

WALDENSES, or Vaudois, a Christian denomination in Italy. The name is commonly derived from Petrus Waldus, Peter Waldo, or Pierre de Vaux, an opulent citizen of Lyons (about 1170), who is regarded as their founder. Some, however, derive it from the Latin vallis, valley, so that it would denote "inhabitants of the valleys." Probably an opposition to the Roman Catholic church, not unlike the Waldensian or the kindred Albigensian movement, existed in some of the Alpine valleys long prior to the date just named. Petrus Waldus, by reading the Bible and the early church writers, conceived an ardent desire to bring back the church, which in her external appearance seemed to him utterly corrupt, to primitive and apostolical purity. He gave all his possessions to the poor, began preaching, and collected a body of associates, who were commonly called the "Poor of Lyons," Leonista (from the name of that city), Sabatati (from their wearing wooden shoes or sandals), or Humiliati (from their humility). The earlier Waldenses probably had no design of seceding from the general church; but when the archbishop of Lyons commanded them to be silent, and Pope Alexander III., disregarding their appeal, likewise forbade their meetings (1179), Waldus continued to preach, teaching that they must obey God rather than man; and in 1184 he and his followers were formally excommunicated by Pope Lucius III. His views spread in France, Italy, and Bohemia, and his adherents became especially numerous in Provence and in the valleys of Piedmont. In 1242 they were again condemned by the synod of Tarragona, and large numbers of them were put to death. Those living in the valleys suffered especially from persecution, and under Sixtus IV. a crusade was preached against them. In Bohemia they united mostly with the Hussites, especially the Taborites, and with the Bohemian Brethren. The persecution of the Waldenses of Piedmont continued with but rare interruptions throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. In 1686 they were attacked by a French and Italian army, the former under Catinat, sent by Louis XIV., who had just expelled the Protestants of France; 3,000 were killed, 10,000 imprisoned, and 3,000 of their children distributed in Catholic towns and villages. Indeed, till the present century, their history is mainly comprised in sufferings and death for conscience' sake. Several thousand left the valleys for Switzerland, Holland, Brandenburg, Hesse, and Würtemberg. In the last named country full freedom of religious worship was guaranteed to them, and they still exist in considerable numbers, forming part of the state church, but retaining their own

rites. In 1690 the duke of Savoy invited the fugitives to return, but in 1730 they suffered from a new persecution. Napoleon gave to their clergy for their support landed property, of which they were again stripped after his fall; but the king of Sardinia, at the instance of the Prussian government, gave to each of their ministers a small fixed salary. About 1826 the Prussian government began to interest itself more actively in their behalf, and to aid them in the erection of churches and schools. Still they continued to be excluded from all civil and military offices till 1848, when Sardinia granted them full religious and ecclesiastical liberty and equality of civil and political rights with the Roman Catholics. Until 1848 they were confined to three retired valleys of the Cottian Alps, Lucerna, Perosa, and San Martino; but they have since organized new congregations in all parts of Italy. In 1848 Turin became the centre of many of their operations; but when all Italy was opened to them by the subsequent revolutions, they fixed upon Florence as the centre of their denomination, and consequently the theological seminary was removed thither in 1860, and the printing press with the publication of their peculiar organ in 1862. They have been especially active in the publication of religious books, and in 1861, in order to extend this field of their labor, an Italian evangelical publication society was formed. In 1873 they had seven professors in the theological seminaries of Florence and colleges of La Tour and Pomaret; a hospital at each of the last two places; a superior school for young men, a normal school, a grammar school at Pomaret, and 19 theological students at Florence. Four journals were published, three in Italian and one in French. In the beginning of 1876, according to a recent report, the Waldensian church in Italy, besides 16 parishes in the valleys, had 40 settled congregations, 10 missionary stations with 50 outposts occasionally visited, 20 ordained ministers, 10 licentiates, 14 schoolmaster-evangelists, 53 other teachers, 5 colporteurs, and 2,140 communicants. In Rome the Waldenses have an organization and a church edifice, and Sabbath and other schools. There is a Waldensian colony at Rosario in the Argentine Republic.-In doctrine and church constitution, the Waldenses approach nearest to the Reformed church of France. They recognize the Bible as their only rule of faith, and be lieve their "Confession of Faith" published in 1655 to be the most correct expression of Biblical theology. With regard to the Lord's supper they agree with the Calvinists, but they have not adopted the doctrine of absolute predestination. In their public services they use the Bible, and especially the Psalms. Their synod consists of all the ministers and twice their number of lay delegates, who however cast only an equal number of votes with the clergy. The meetings are annual. Each

boundary between North and South Wales, which reaches a height of 2,481 ft.; and the Black mountains, or Forest Fawr, in South Wales, the highest points of which, the Carmarthen and Brecknock Beacons, are respectively 2,596 and 2,862 ft. North Wales contains many picturesque valleys, but a large part of it is at a high elevation and unfit for cultivation. S. of the Plinlimmon range is an extensive and desolate mountain region, but E. and W. of it are beautiful and fertile valleys. In South Wales, on the S. side of the mountain system, is the plain of Glamorgan, the most fertile part of the country. The scenery of the Welsh mountains, which is noted for its picturesque beauty, attracts many visitors. Of the rivers of Wales, the Dee, Severn, Wye, and Usk flow into England. There are several smaller streams, of which the Clwyd flows into the Irish sea on the N. coast; the Dovey, Rheidol, Aeron, and Teifi into Cardigan bay; the Towy and Neath into Carmarthen bay; and the Taff into Bristol channel. The only lake of importance, Bala, is but 4 m. long. About two thirds of Wales, extending from the river Conway on the N. coast nearly to Carmarthen bay, belongs to the Silurian formation. All S. E. Wales is Devonian or old red sandstone, above which lie the coal fields of South Wales, the one occupying the greater part of Glamorganshire and a part of Carmarthen, and a narrower one crossing the Pembroke peninsula to St. Bride's bay. These coal measures are estimated to be from 7,000 to 12,000 ft. thick, with more than 100 coal beds, 70 of which are worked. Wales abounds in useful minerals of great variety. Anglesea is rich in copper and lead ores, the latter containing silver enough to render its extraction profitable. The Parys copper mine, which once produced annually 70,000 tons of ore, is now much less valuable. In Carnarvonshire are great quarries of slate, which employ many thousand hands. gross value of the annual product of the Penryn quarries, under Snowdon, is £150,000. Denbighshire exports roofing slates, paving flags, and immense quantities of limestone to be used as a flux for blast furnaces in England. It has also beds of iron ore, coal, and lead. The adjoining county of Flint is rich in iron, zinc, lead, coal, and limestone. The leadsmelting works at Bagillt are among the most extensive in the world. Lead mines are worked in the N. E. part of Carmarthenshire. In the same part of Wales, 10 m. W. of Llandovery, are the gold mines of Gogofaw, which were worked by the ancient Romans. The galleries made by them in the rock are still to be seen, and there are traces of aqueducts, built probably to convey water to wash the gold, at the adjacent Roman station of Cynfil-Cays, where many gold ornaments have been found. These mines have not been worked in modern times. Other ancient gold mines are found in Merionethshire, N. of Dolgelly, which have been worked of late years. The lodes contain also

The

small quantities of copper ore and galena. Glamorganshire is one of the richest of the mineral districts. Its coal field is almost inexhaustible. The anthracite coal occurs chiefly near Llanelly, and E. of it lie great deposits of blast coal. The collieries employ about 10,000 hands. Blackband ironstone is found at Cwm Avon and other places, and there are several great iron works, which employ more than 5,000 hands. Copper is extensively worked at Swansea, Michaelston, Neath, and Taebach, and tin at Aberavon, Cadoxton, and Treforest. Zinc, lead, manganese, gypsum, and firestone are also worked to some extent. The climate is moderate and equable, though somewhat cold and excessively humid; the average annual rainfall is 45.5 inches. The soil is fertile in the valleys, but often barren on the hills, though affording tolerable pasturage. The principal vegetable products are the cereals, grasses, and some fruits. Agriculture is backward, but gradually improving. The domestic animals are generally small, but of good quality. The Hereford cattle are preferred. A small active breed of ponies, the "Merlins," are reared in considerable numbers, and hardy sheep are raised in the mountain districts. In the vicinity of Cardiff, near Newport, and on the island of Anglesea, as well as in other parts of Wales, are numerous remains of the druidical age, called cromlechs, some of them of great extent and composed of stones of immense size; and evidences of the occupation of some portions of the country by the Romans are found in the ruins of camps, walls, &c., and in the Roman coins occasionally exhumed.-Wales is divided politically into 12 counties, whose area, population in 1861 and 1871, and capitals are as follows: