UTOPIA

tri-weekly (German), and five weekly (one Welsh) newspapers, and a quarterly ("American Journal of Insanity") and three monthly periodicals are published. There are 34 churches, viz.: 4 Baptist, 5 Episcopal, 1 Evangelical Association, 2 Evangelical Lutheran, 1 German Moravian, 1 Jewish, 6 Methodist, 5 Presbyterian, 1 Reformed, 5 Roman Catholic, 1 Universalist, 1 Welsh Calvinistic Methodist, and 1 Welsh Congregational.-The site of the city was included in the colonial grant styled Cosby's manor, made in 1734; but there was no settlement till after the revolution. Fort Schuyler was erected between the present Main and Mohawk streets, below Second street, in 1758, and a blockhouse was built before the close of the revolutionary war near the site of the present railroad depot. Till 1798 the village was called Old Fort Schuyler. In 1813 it had 1,700 inhabitants, and it grew very slowly till after the completion of the Erie canal. It received a city charter in 1832.

cathedrals. Of the latter, the Reformed St. Martin's is the most remarkable for its fine Gothic architecture, and has seven chapels filled with monuments. Part of it was destroyed by a hurricane in 1674, and the tower is still detached from the main building. The government offices are in the so-called pope's house, built by Pope Adrian VI., who was born here (1459), in a house still standing. The once celebrated St. Paul's abbey is used for courts of law. Among other notable buildings are the national mint, a palace for arts and sciences, one formerly inhabited by King Louis Bonaparte, the renovated town hall, a large military hospital established by Napoleon I., and the William's barracks. The university, dating from 1636, is attended by about 500 students; among its adjuncts are a new physiological museum, a botanic garden, and a large library. Cigars, cotton, silk, linen, woollen cloth, carpets, and plush (Utrecht velvet) are made, and there are many publishing houses. Drinking water is shipped to Amsterdam. The city is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop and the old headquarters of the Jansenists, whose resident archbishop and whole congre

UTOPIA (Gr. ou, not, and тóños, a place), the title of a political romance by Sir Thomas More, and the name that he gave to an imaginary island, which he represents to have been discovered by a companion of Amerigo Ves-gation of 5,000 members joined the Old Cathpucci, and in which existed a perfect society. He pictured a community where all the property belonged to the government, to which every one contributed by his labor, receiving therefrom a supply of his wants; where the citizen rose through all the gradations of his existence from form to form, as if in a vast public school; where gold was contemned, and all the members of the society, unswerved by passion, were fixed each in his proper place. "Utopia" was published in Latin in 1516, and translated into English by Bishop Burnet.

UTRAQUISTS. See CALIXTINES.

olics in 1874.-Utrecht is the oldest of all Batavian cities. The Romans called it Trajectum ad Rhenum and Ultrajectum; from the latter the modern name is derived. It belonged successively to the Frankish dominions and the German empire, and the union which laid the foundation of the republic of the seven United Provinces was organized here in 1579. The treaty of Utrecht, signed April 11, 1713, after long conferences, by the representatives of France, Great Britain, Holland, Prussia, Portugal, and Savoy, and subsequently completed 'by the peace of Rastadt (1714) and other treaUTRECHT. I. A province of the Netherlands, ties, formed an important era by ending the bounded N. by North Holland and the Zuyder Spanish war of succession. By it Philip V., Zee, E. by Gelderland, S. by Gelderland and grandson of Louis XIV., was acknowledged South Holland, and W. by South Holland; as king of Spain; the Spanish Netherlands, area, 534 sq. m.; pop. in 1873, 179,465. The Naples, Milan, and the island of Sardinia were surface is level in the north and west, and va- left in the possession of the emperor Charles ried in the southeast by low hills. It is well VI.; Sicily was given to Victor Amadeus II. watered by the Rhine, and its branches the of Savoy; and England obtained Gibraltar, Vecht and Amstel. The air is less damp than Minorca, the Hudson Bay territories, Newin other parts of the Netherlands, and the foundland, and Acadia, besides the recognition climate is generally healthful. In the eleva- of the Protestant succession. (See Le traité ted parts the soil is sandy, and covered by ex-d'Utrecht, by Charles Giraud, Paris, 1847.) tensive heaths and tracts of peat moors, but the low grounds are rich and fertile. II. A city, capital of the province, on the Crooked Rhine, which here divides into the Vecht and the Old Rhine, the principal branch assuming the latter name, 20 m. S. E. of Amsterdam; pop. in 1875, 64,275, about one third Roman Catholics. It is surrounded by forts, but the old ramparts are now used as boulevards. The mall, in the E. part of the city, is an exceedingly fine promenade. There are several canals and attractive squares, and many families of the Dutch aristocracy reside here. It has more than 20 churches, besides three

UTRICULARIA (Lat. utriculus, a little bladder), the bladderwort, a genus of aquatic or marsh plants, of which there are more than 100 species, some of which are found in nearly all parts of the world, there being over a dozen in the United States. The genus, with pinguicula and one other little known genus, forms what most botanists call the family lentibulacea (from lentibula, an old name for one species), but Hooker in his edition of Maout and Decaisne ("General System of Botany") gives the family the more appropriate name utriculariea; its affinities as to the structure of the flowers are with the

figworts (scrophulariacea), and that of the fruit with the primroses (primulacea). A few of our species are found rooting in the muddy or sandy margins of ponds; these have minute awl-shaped leaves, and a slender stem bearing a solitary flower or a few flowers. The majority of them are floating aquatics, and are usually without roots; their branching stems are furnished with leaves divided into fine, capillary segments, bearing numerous small bladders, which at flowering time enable the plant to float near the surface and throw up its naked stems, which bear a few yellow or purplish flowers. The calyx is two-lipped; the monopetalous corolla two-lipped with a projecting palate, which often closes the throat; stamens two, with one-celled anthers; pistil with a one-celled free ovary, ripening into a several-seeded capsule.-The bladderworts have long been favorite plants with botanists, on account of their peculiar structure and the rarity of some of the species, but of late they have been invested with new interest from the fact that they must now be classed, with the closely related pinguicula, among insectivorous plants. It had been observed that

Utricularia. Small branch with divided leaves and

subspecies of U. vulgaris, our most abundant bladderwort. The structure and action of the bladders require several pages and engravings

Common Bladderwort (Utricularis vulgaris).

for a full explanation. The bladders, of which there are two or three on the same divided leaf, are about one tenth of an inch across, and usually filled with water, though often containing bubbles of air; they are attached to the leaf by a short stalk, and, as shown by the enlarged engraving, are of a one-sided eggshape. The mouth or opening usually points downward, and on the upper side terminates in two long appendages, each of which bears six or seven long bristles; these appendages, of which that on the near side only is shown in the engraving, Darwin terms antennæ; beneath these is the opening, with several other bristles on each side of it, and this is closed by a valve so arranged that it can only open inward; this valve is furnished with numerous glands, and the whole interior of the bladder is studded with processes, consisting of four unequal arms, which he calls quadrifid processes. The valve yields to a slight exterior pressure, the structure of the bladder being that of an admirably contrived trap for capblad-turing microscopic creatures; and that it performs this office most effectively, the presence of animals or their remains in nine out of ten of the bladders is a proof. These creatures have been repeatedly seen by Mrs. Treat to enter the bladder, and she noted the time they remained alive after their capture; in most cases the before clear and transparent bladder became in less than two days so muddy from the decomposition of the animals that the contents could not be seen. Darwin has satisfied himself by experiments, given at length in the work referred to, that the utricularias capture these animals for nutriment.

ders, enlarged twice; a single bladder, greatly enlarged. the little bladders, which form such a striking feature of the floating species, contained minute crustaceans and other microscopic animals, and that their use was not solely, as had been supposed, to enable the plant to float and lift its flowers above the water. These hints induced Darwin to investigate the matter, and the results form two important chapters in his "Insectivorous Plants (1875). About the same time Mrs. Mary Treat of Vineland, N. J., investigated the subject, and though most of her observations (published in the "New York Tribune," January, 1875) were anticipated by Darwin, she noticed some points that escaped him, which he quotes in the work referred to. Darwin's observations were made upon U. neglecta, which English botanists now regard as a

UVALDE, a S. W. county of Texas, drained by the Rio Frio and its affluents; area, 1,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 851, of whom 73 were colored. It has great advantages for stock raising, but is not well adapted to agriculture on

V

is Afon.-V as a numeral denotes 5, or with a dash over it (V), 500. On old French coins it signifies the mint of Troyes.

VACA, Cabeça de. See NUÑEZ, ALVAR. VACCAJ, Nicolò, an Italian composer, born at Tolentino in the Papal States in 1791, died in Milan in 1849. He was a pupil of Paisiello at Naples, and from 1811 to 1820 wrote operas, cantatas, and ballets, which had a moderate success. He then taught singing in Venice, Trieste, and Vienna, and wrote Pietro il Grande, a comic opera performed at Parma, Zadig ed Astartea, performed at Naples, and Giulietta e Romeo, performed at Milan, his best work. He afterward taught singing in Paris and London, but returned to Italy in 1832, and in 1838 became first master of composition at the conservatory of Milan, which post he held till his death.

was discovered that those who had been well and thoroughly vaccinated were still liable to some extent to attacks of smallpox; and though in general the disease was modified (varioloid) and rendered shorter and milder, still it occasionally resulted in death. The degree of protection afforded by vaccination thus became a question of great interest. Its extreme value was easily demonstrated by statistical researches. In England, in the last half of the 18th century, out of every 1,000 deaths, 96 occurred from smallpox; in the first half of the present century, out of every 1,000 deaths, but 35 were caused by that disease. The amount of mortality in a country by smallpox seems to bear a fixed relation to the extent to which vaccination is carried out. In all England and Wales, for some years previous to 1853, the proportional mortality by smallpox was 219 to 1,000 deaths from all causes; in London it was but 16 to 1,000; in Ireland, where vaccination was much less general, it was 49 to 1,000, while in Connaught it was 60 to 1,000. On the other hand, in a number of European countries where vaccination was more or less compulsory, the proportionate number of deaths from smallpox about the same time varied from 2 per 1,000 of all causes in Bohemia, Lombardy, Venice, and Sweden, to 8:33 per 1,000 in Saxony. Although in many instances persons who had been vaccinated were attacked with smallpox in a more or less modified form, it was noticed that the persons so attacked had been commonly vacciin-nated many years previously. The mere lapse of time in many cases seems sufficient to destroy the protective influence of vaccination. The duration of the protective influence varies with different individuals. The same thing happens with regard to the protective influence of an attack of smallpox itself; in most persons it lasts for life; many, after a period more or less prolonged, are liable to a second attack; while cases have occurred in which a third attack has proved fatal. In all cases revaccination seems to be a test of the loss or presence of the protective influence; to render this test certain, where revaccination does not succeed on the first trial, it should be carefully performed a second time. In the Prussian army in 1848, 28,859 individuals were revaccinated, in 6,373 of whom the cicatrices of the preceding vaccination were indistinct or invisible. Of these, 16,862 had regular vesicles, 4,404 irregular vesicles, and in 7,753 cases no effect was produced. On a repetition of the vaccination in these last, it succeeded in 1,579 cases. Among the whole number successfully revaccinated either in 1848 or before, there was but a single case of varioloid, and not one case of smallpox; while seven cases of varioloid occurred either among the recruits or among those revaccinated without success.

VACCARO, Andrea, an Italian painter, born in Naples in 1598, died there in 1670. He was a pupil of Stanzioni, after whose death he was at the head of the Neapolitan school. One of his best works is a "Holy Family" in the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli at Naples. VACCINATION (Lat. vacca, a cow), inoculation for cowpox as a protection against smallpox, first practised by Dr. Edward Jenner in 1796. (See JENNER.) Ön the 2d or 3d day after virus taken from a perfect vaccine vesicle, whether from the cow or the human subject, is placed in contact with the denuded dermis or true skin, the puncture is observed to be slightly inflamed. On the 4th or 5th day a vesicle is observed surrounded by a slight blush of flammation, and containing a little colorless, transparent fluid. This increases until the 8th day, when it should be from a quarter to half an inch in diameter, the blush of inflammation surrounding it at the same time having become more marked. The vesicle is umbilicated, that is, its centre is depressed below the level of the circumference, in this respect resembling the pustules of smallpox. It is compound, being made of 10 to 14 distinct cells; one of these, carefully punctured, discharges a minute drop of fluid, leaving the other cells still distended. On the 8th day the blush of surrounding inflammation, heretofore very slight, begins to extend, forming what is termed the areola; it attains its greatest diameter by the 11th day, after which it gradually fades and disappears. With the appearance of the areola the vesicle becomes darker and dryer, and gradually concretes into a brown translucent crust, which falls off about the 20th day, leaving a circular depressed cicatrix. About the 8th or 9th day there is usually some slight febrile disturbance, though it is often scarcely noticeable. Such is the course of the true vaccine vesicle when uninterfered with, either by the presence of constitutional disease or by the accidental occurrence of inflammation.-When vaccination was first introduced, it was believed that it would afford in all cases complete and permanent protection from smallpox. But it

VACHEROT, Étienne, a French philosopher, born in Langres, July 29, 1809. He studied at the normal school in Paris, and was director

of studies there from 1837 to 1851, when he | are those of the Helvetian or Lepontine Alps was suspended through ultramontane influence. In 1852 he was dismissed for refusing to take the oath to Napoleon III.; and for his treatise La démocratie (1859) he underwent three months' imprisonment, and for this and his refusal to act as a member of the council of superior instruction was disfranchised till 1870. In 1871 he was elected a member of the national assembly. He succeeded Cousin in the academy. His works include Histoire critique de l'école d'Alexandrie, crowned by the academy (3 vols., 1846-'51); La métaphysique et la science (2 vols., 1858; 2d ed., 3 vols., 1863); Essais de philosophie critique (1864); and La religion (1868).