ULPIAN

ULSTER

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ULPIAN (DOMITIUS ULPIANUS), a Roman jurist, assassinated at Rome, A. D. 228. He was of Tyrian origin, and during the reigns of Septimius Severus and Caracalla wrote juristical works. When Elagabalus ascended the throne in 218 he was banished, but in 222 he became one of the chief advisers of Alexander Severus, who made him Scriniorum magister, consiliarius, and præfectus annona. He also held the office of prætorian prefect. He was killed by the soldiers in the presence of the emperor and his mother. Ulpian was one of the most distinguished of the Roman jurists, and from his works were taken about one third of the excerpts made for Justinian's Digest.

place in the Swabian diet. In the 15th cen- | the New York, Kingston, and Syracuse railtury it had more than 50,000 inhabitants, be- road. The chief productions in 1870 were sides 40,000 in the adjoining territory, then 42,532 bushels of wheat, 107,502 of rye, 394,belonging to the town. Its wealth became 004 of Indian corn, 447,837 of oats, 132,515 of proverbial, but the strategical importance of buckwheat, 688,435 of potatoes, 1,631,956 lbs. Ulm involved it in nearly all great German of butter, 41,595 of wool, and 97,995 tons of wars. In 1803 it was annexed to Bavaria. hay. There were 8,928 horses, 17,640 milch The Austrian general Mack surrendered here cows, 12,597 other cattle, 14,119 sheep, and to Napoleon, Oct. 20, 1805, with his entire 14,070 swine. There were 690 manufacturing army of 23,000 men. Subsequently it was re-establishments; capital invested, $4,938,201; stored to Bavaria, and in 1810 it was allotted value of products, $10,213,187. The principal to Würtemberg, the former country retaining manufactories were 54 of carriages and wagons, only the village of Neu-Ulm, on the opposite 3 of hubs and wagon material, 10 of bricks, 11 bank of the Danube. The extensive fortifica- of cement, 13 of cooperage, 2 of edge tools and tions of Ulm are situated partly in Würtem- axes, 14 of furniture, 1 of glass ware, 9 of iron, berg, partly in Bavarian territory. 3 of lime, 4 of machinery, 7 of marble and stone work, 1 of paints, 4 of paper, 5 of woollens, 38 saw mills, 6 breweries, 15 tanneries, and 34 flour mills. Capital, Kingston. ULSTER, one of the four provinces of Ireland, constituting the N. part of the island, bounded W. and N. by the Atlantic ocean, E. by the North channel and Irish sea, S. E. by Leinster, and S. W. by Connaught; area, about 8,550 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 1,830,398, nearly half of them Protestants. It is divided into the counties of Antrim, Armagh, Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Monaghan, and Tyrone. The coasts are generally rugged and indented by numerous bays and harbors, the chief of which are Carlingford bay, Dundrum bay, Strangford lough, Belfast lough, Lough Larne, Lough Foyle, Lough Swilly, Mulroy bay, Sheep Haven, and Donegal bay. The principal rivers are the Erne, Foyle, Bann, and Lagan. A considerable part of the surface is mountainous, and two chains traverse the province from E. to W., the highest peaks being in the counties of Donegal and Down; Errigal in the former and Slieve Donard in the latter are respectively 2,460 and 2,796 ft. high. Between these ranges is an extensive tract of undulating ground, near the centre of which is Lough Neagh. Other large lakes are Upper and Lower Lough Erne, and Loughs Melvin, Sheelin, Oughter, Derg, Esk, and Veagh. Ulster is the seat of the Irish linen manufacture, which supports about one fourth of the population. Cotton is extensively manufactured in Belfast and vicinity. Internal communication is facilitated by railways and canals, and numerous excellent roads.-Ulster was partly conquered and held as an earldom under Henry II. by John de Courcy, from whom it was transferred to Hugh de Lacy; and by descent from him, through the De Burgh and Mortimer families, the title was merged in the crown of England under Edward IV. James I. colonized Ulster with Scotch and English Protestant settlers, to whom he gave grants of land in lots of 1,000, 1,500, and 2,000 acres. The insurrection of 1641 was to overthrow these Protestant settlements. Several towns were taken, the country was devastated, many thousand lives were sacrificed, and it was not till 1649 that the rebellion was completely quelled.

ULRICI, Hermann, a German philosopher, born at Pforten, Lusatia, March 23, 1806. He was educated at Halle and Berlin, and practised law for some time, but in 1829 devoted himself to philosophical studies, and in 1834 became professor at Halle. He was also one of the joint editors of the Zeitschrift für Philosophie. His position in philosophy is independent, and he strives to mediate between realism and idealism. His works include Geschichte der hellenischen Dichtkunst (2 vols., Berlin, 1835); Ueber Shakspeare's dramatische Kunst (Halle, 1839; 3d ed., 1868; English translation by A. I. W. Morrison, London, 1846); Ueber Princip und Methode der Hegel'schen Philosophie (1841); Das Grundprincip der Philosophie (Leipsic, 1845-'6); System der Logik (1852); Glauben und Wissen, speculative und exacte Wissenschaft (1858); Compendium der Logik (1860; enlarged ed., 1872); Gott und die Natur (1862; 2d ed., 1866); Gott und der Mensch (1866 et seq.); Zur logischen Frage (Halle, 1870); and Der Philosoph Strauss (1873). ULSTER, a S. E. county of New York, bounded E. by the Hudson river, and drained by the Esopus, Rondout, and Wallkill creeks; area, 1,204 sq. m.; pop. in 1875, 88,271. The surface is broken by the Catskill and Shawangunk ridges, and the soil is generally best adapted to grazing. Iron ore, limestone, slate, and marl are found, and there are indications of the existence of coal, lead, plumbago, and alum. Large quantities of flagging stone are exported. The Delaware and Hudson canal passes through it, and it is also intersected by

In Germany Febronius (Bishop Hontheim) wrote a powerful work against ultramontanism; and in 1786, at the convention of Ems, the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, Cologne, and Salzburg denounced it. In Italy its chief opponent in the last century was Scipione Ricci, bishop of Pistoja, who convened a synod in that city in September, 1786, and promulgated disciplinary decrees and a doctrinal exposition favoring extreme Gallicanism and Jansenism. These were partly confirmed, April 23, 1787, by an assembly of the bishops of Tuscany; but the grand duke, who had been the chief promoter of these measures, having become emperor as Leopold II. in 1790, allowed his successor to restrain and punish Ricci and his followers. The acts of the synod of Pistoja were condemned by Pius VI. in the dogmatic bull Auctorem fidei of Aug. 28, 1794. The political aspects of ultramontanism were once more brought into prominent notice in 1869-70 in connection with the council of the Vatican and the doctrine of papal infallibility. Since then the tendencies of ultramontanism in its bearings on civil allegiance have been vehemently discussed, especially in Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and England.

ULTRAMARINE, a beautiful blue pigment ori- | tion everywhere assumed a national character. ginally made from lapis lazuli (see LAPIS LAZULI), but now prepared in large quantities artificially. Its fabrication was suggested by the discovery of blue masses on taking down soda furnaces and lime kilns; and the société d'encouragement at Paris in 1824 offered a prize of 6,000 francs for its production, which was awarded to Guimet of Toulouse in 1828. A mode of preparation had previously been published by Christian Gmelin, in the beginning of the same year. Guimet's process was first applied on the manufacturing scale, but was kept secret. Gmelin's process was long followed, but many others have finally come into use. The following process, given by Prof. Miller of London, answers well upon a small scale: An intimate mixture of 100 parts of finely washed kaolin, 100 of sodic carbonate, 60 of sulphur, and 12 of charcoal is exposed in a covered crucible to a bright red heat for three hours and a half. The residue, which should not be in a fused condition, is green. The product after grinding is well washed, dried, and mixed with one fifth of its weight of sulphur, and exposed in a thin layer to a gentle heat a little above that required to burn off the sulphur, which being accomplished the process is repeated two or three times, until the mass becomes bright blue. The green modification, the product of the initial process, is also manufactured for the market. There is some doubt as to the nature of the coloring matter of ultramarine. According to the experiments of Wilkens, ultramarine is composed of two portions, one constant, containing the coloring matter and soluble in hydrochloric acid, while the other contains a variable amount of clay, ferric oxide, and sulphuric acid.

ULTRAMONTANISTS (Lat. ultra montes, beyond the mountains), the name formerly applied to all theologians in the Roman Catholic church who advocated the highest spiritual and temporal power of the papacy, and bestowed since 1870 on all who accept the decrees of the Vatican council. The name originated with the French Gallicans, who denied to the popes all right to depose sovereigns or to interfere in the temporal affairs of states and of national churches, and maintained that the doctrinal judgments of the popes only become infallible and binding on the conscience when confirmed by the consent of the church, and that the authority of a general council is superior to that of the pope. The contrary view being held "beyond the Alps" and throughout Italy, its supporters were called Transalpini and ultramontani. At the council of Constance, where these adverse opinions came conspicuously into conflict, the designation of ultramontane was extended to persons of every nationality who denied the superiority of the council over the pope. After that council the question of the direct or indirect power of the papacy over states and sovereigns became the chief point of dispute, and the ques

ULYSSES, or Odysseus (Gr. 'Odvoσeks), one of the Greek leaders at the siege of Troy. According to the Homeric account, he was the son of Laërtes and Anticlea, and married Penelope, the daughter of Icarius, by whom he had a son named Telemachus. He ruled in Ithaca, and only with great difficulty could be induced to join the expedition against Troy. According to one form of the legend, he simulated insanity to avoid taking part, and ploughed the sand on the beach; Palamedes exposed the deception by placing his infant son Telemachus in the furrow, at which Ulysses turned the plough aside. The falsity of his madness being thus disclosed, he joined the Grecian fleet at Aulis with 12 ships, and when the expedition had reached Tenedos was sent with Menelaus to Troy to demand Helen and the stolen prop erty. The mission was unsuccessful. In the ten years' war he was distinguished for his prowess as a warrior, but far more for his eloquence, sagacity, and inexhaustible resources under difficulties. After the death of Achilles his armor was offered as a prize to the greatest warrior in the Greek army, and Ulysses and Ajax became rivals for the honor, the former proving successful. By his contrivance the Palladium was carried away from Troy by stealth, and he was one of the heroes concealed in the wooden horse which the Trojans to their ruin introduced into the city. ten years' wanderings after the close of the siege form the subject of the Odyssey. After various adventures he was thrown upon the coasts of the Lotophagi, where his companions, having eaten of the lotus, wished to remain. But he induced them to depart, sailed to the island of the Cyclops, and with 12 of

His

UMATILLA.

UMBRE

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UMBER, a pigment much used by artists for brown and grave colors. It is made from an argillaceous brown hematite having the formula 2Fe2O3,3H,O, by roasting, pulverizing, and mixing it with variable proportions of clay or ochre, and sometimes with a little oxide of manganese, or it may be used alone. Ordinary roasting does not drive off all the water, and in this state it is called raw umber. When strongly heated it is completely dehydrated, and is called burnt umber. It is used both in oil and water colors, and is often mixed with other pigments.

UMBRE, a wading bird of the heron family, and genus scopus (Briss.). The bill is longer than the head, elevated at the base, compressed

his followers entered the cave of Polyphemus, | river valleys are fertile; back of these are rollwho devoured six of his companions. Ulysses ing prairies and high table lands covered with made the giant drunk with wine, put out his pasturage, and beyond these hills well wooded one eye with a burning pole, and then tying with pines. Gold is mined in the mountains himself and his companions under the bodies and on the bars of the Columbia. Coal, copof the sheep, escaped when these were let out per, and iron are also found. The chief proof the cave. Polyphemus implored his father ductions in 1870 were 28,209 bushels of wheat, Neptune to visit Ulysses with his vengeance, 9,789 of Indian corn, 56,634 of oats, 11,782 of and the remainder of his voyage was constant- barley, 26,413 of potatoes, 97,564 lbs. of wool, ly disturbed. Reaching the island of Eolus, 72,730 of butter, and 3,394 tons of hay. There Clysses was presented by that deity on his de- were 13,712 horses, 7,317 milch cows, 9,240 parture with a bag containing the winds that other cattle, 29,960 sheep, and 2,027 swine. were to bring him home; but his followers Capital, Pendleton. opened the bag without his knowledge, the winds escaped, and the vessels were driven back to the island. After six days he reached the country of the cannibal Læstrygones, from which he escaped with only one ship. Thence he sailed to æa, inhabited by the sorceress Circe, who changed part of his followers into swine. Through the aid of Mercury he overcame her spells, and his companions resumed their human shape. Circe now treated them kindly, and by her advice Ulysses descended into Hades to consult the seer Tiresias. The prophet assured him that everything would turn out right if the herds of Helios in Trinacria should be left unharmed. Returning to Eæa, he was carried to the island of the sirens, but by filling the ears of his companions with wax and tying himself to the mast he passed them in safety. His ship then came between Scylla and Charybdis, and the monster Scylla carried off and devoured six of his companions. Coming to Trinacria, he was compelled by his companions to land. There they were detained by storms, and while he was sleeping some of the finest of the cattle of Helios, which they had sworn not to touch, were killed and eaten by his followers. As soon as they were again on the open sea, another storm arose, and the vessel was destroyed by lightning, all on board being drowned except Ulysses. He was carried to the island of Ogygia, inhabited by the nymph Calypso, who promised him immortality and eternal youth if he would marry and remain with her. But after a stay of seven years he embarked on a raft, and reached Scheria, from which place he was sent to Ithaca in a ship, having been absent 20 years. He found his wife beset by suitors (see PENELOPE), all of whom he slew with the aid of Minerva and his son Telemachus. Of his later life and of his death there are different accounts. In one, his son Telegonus by Circe, being sent to look for his father, and being shipwrecked on Ithaca and beginning to plunder for the sake of obtaining food, was attacked by Ulysses and Telemachus, and in the contest that followed Telegonus slew his own father.

UMATILLA, a N. E. county of Oregon, bordering on Washington territory, bounded N. W. by the Columbia river and E. by the Blue mountains, and watered by the Umatilla river and other streams; area, 5,300 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 2,916, of whom 70 were Chinese. The

laterally, keeled above and below, and a little bent at the point; the nostrils prolonged in a furrow; third and fourth quills equal and longest; tail short and even; tarsi longer than middle toe and scaled; front toes united by membrane to first phalanx, the hind one resting wholly on the ground; claws short and slightly curved. The only described species, the tufted umbre (S. umbretta, Gmel.), is 20 in. long, with a bill of 3 in.; the color is a uniform umber brown, the wings and tail barred with darker; the male has an occipital crest about 4 in. long, of loose feathers. It is a native of Africa.

UMBRELLA

walking out, attended by his servant carrying | an umbrella with a handle that slopes backward, so as to bring the umbrella over the head of the person in front. Until a comparatively recent time umbrellas were used in Italy and France only as a protection from the sun. Kersey's "English Dictionary" (1708) defines an umbrella as a 66 screen commonly used by women to keep off rain." Jonas Hanway is said to have been the first man who commonly carried an umbrella in the streets of London, about 1750; at that time their use was considered a mark of great effeminacy. They were at first kept in the halls of great houses, and at coffee houses, to be used in passing from the door to the carriage. In 1787 an English advertisement speaks of "a great assortment of much approved pocket and portable umbrellas."-For a considerable time after the introduction of umbrellas into the United States, in the latter half of the 18th century, it was considered effeminate to carry one. Their manufacture was begun about 1800, and has risen to be an important branch of industry, the products equalling the best English and French. It is confined almost entirely to the cities of Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. By the census of 1870, the number of hands employed directly in the making of umbrellas and canes was 2,618, and the value of the production $4,098,032; and since that time the business has maintained a steady growth.-The silk for covering umbrellas is a special branch of weaving, principally carried on about Lyons, France; but the neighborhood of Crefeld on the Rhine also produces a large quantity, and in Switzerland and England a limited quantity is made. Some silks and alpacas for umbrellas have been made in the United States, but not with much success. The manufacture of the metal parts and of the handles is generally a separate branch. The census of 1870 gives 578 hands employed upon metallic umbrella furniture, producing a value of $724,034. UMBRELLA (Lam.), a genus of gasteropod mollusks, so called from the resemblance of

Umbrella umbellata.

Umbrella Bird (Cephalopterus ornatus).

flattened, gradually curved, with the tip notched and slightly hooked; wings moderate, rather pointed, with the third quill longest; tail short and rounded; toes long and slender, with curved claws. The C. ornatus (Geoffr.) is about as large as a crow, glossy black, with violet, blue, and metallic reflections on the crest and pectoral appendage. The head of the male is surmounted by a large crest of 50 to 80 feathers springing from over the nostrils, the lower half a white stiff shaft, and terminating each in a tuft of black hair-like feathers spreading in all directions, but principally forward; it arises from a contractile skin on the top of the head, and when erected almost hides the bill from view; it is 5 in. in length and about 4 in. wide, somewhat resembling a beautiful blue umbrella. The skin of the neck is very loose, and from it grows a cylindrical fleshy process, about as thick as a goose quill, 1 in. long, from which extends a tuft of imbricated feathers, bordered with metallic blue, and hanging down several inches. It is found in the islands of the great South American rivers, feeding principally on fruits; it is arboreal, and utters a very loud and deep note, which has gained for it from the tribes of the Rio Negro the name of piper bird.-The araponga or bell bird (procnias alba, Thunb.) is about 12 in. long and pure white; it has a singular cylindrical fleshy appendage, with a few small feathers, rising from the base of the bill; the mouth is very wide; the voice resembles the tolling of a bell, and may be heard, according to Wa