prive the American subject of trial by jury, authorize the judge's certificate to indemnify the prosecutor from damages that he might otherwise be liable to, requiring oppressive security from a claimant of ships and goods seized, before he shall be allowed to defend his property, and are subversive of American rights.

Also, 12 Geo. III., ch. 24, entitled, An act for the better securing his majesty's dock-yards, magazines, ships, ammunition, and stores, which declares a new offense in America, and deprives the American subject of a constitutional trial by a jury of the vicinage, by authorizing the trial of any person charged with committing any offense described in said act, out of the realm, to be indicted and tried for the same in any shire or county within the realm.

Also, the three acts passed at the last session of Parliament, for stopping the port and blocking up the harbor of Boston, for altering the charter and government of Massachusetts Bay, and that which is entitled, An act for the better administration of justice, etc. Also the act passed at the same session for establishing the Roman Catholic religion in the province of Quebec, abolishing the equitable system of English laws, and erecting a tyranny there, to the great danger (from so total a dissimilarity of religion, law, and government) of the neighboring British colonies, by the assistance of whose blood and treasure the said country was conquered from France. Also the act, passed at the same session, for the better providing suitable quarters for officers and soldiers in his majesty's service in North America. Also, that the keeping a standing army in several of the colonies, in time of peace, without the consent of the legislature of that colony in which such army is kept, is against law.

To these grievous acts and measures Americans can not submit; but in hopes their fellow-subjects in Great Britain will, on a revision of them, restore us to that state in which both countries found happiness and prosperity, we have, for the present, only resolved to pursue the following peaceable measures:

1. To enter into a non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation agreement or association.

2. To prepare an address to the people of Great Britain, and a memorial to the inhabitants of British America.

3. To prepare a loyal address to his majesty, agreeable to the resolutions already entered into.

CHAPTER III.

REVOLUTIONARY POLITICS.

STATE GOVERNMENTS DURING THE REVOLUTION.

At the outbreak of the Revolution the colonies formed provisional governments or disobeyed existing authorities when in conflict with the wishes of the Americans. By the Declaration of Independence the colonies became states, and each established a government of its own, the fundamental law being a charter previously obtained from the crown or a constitution supplanting it. Some of the charters were very liberal, and satisfied the wishes of the people long after the Declaration of Independence; but the majority of the colonies discarded their charters and adopted constitutions. South Carolina adopted her first constitution in 1775, a year before the Declaration of Independence. New Hampshire, declaring herself free from Massachusetts, established a temporary government in 1776, under which she acted until 1784, when she adopted her first constitution. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina adopted their constitutions in 1776, in accordance with the recommendation of Congress. New York declared herself independent of England in May, 1776, and adopted a constitution the following year. Connecticut continued to act under her charter till 1818, at which date she adopted her first constitution. The charter of Rhode Island was not supplanted by a constitution till 1842.

Under these charters and constitutions each colony acted in an independent capacity till the adoption of the Articles of Confederation, when certain modifications were made.

At the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, each state being supreme within its limits, and having no superior to which it was accountable, had, save where there was restraint by the provisions of its constitution, as ample powers as any government of Europe. There was no power that could veto or annul the acts of a state. These attributes rendered every state essentially sovereign.

THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS.

The independence of the colonies did not prevent them from acting in concert. Danger required unity of action, and a central authority was necessary for the common safety. This was effected through the Continental Congress, which was composed of delegates from all of the colonies, and "which acted upon measures intended to promote the interests and secure the common safety of the whole." This body began operations on the 10th of May, 1775, and managed the general affairs of the colonies as a voluntary assembly and with undefined powers till 1781.

Congress could recommend measures, but it had no power to compel the states or the people to act. This lack of delegated power was not at first a hinderance to successful action, for, under the pressure and influence of a common danger, both the states and Congress exerted themselves with energy and efficiency. But, as the novelty of hostilities wore away, voluntary activity began to falter, and, zeal subsiding, the recommendations of Congress were seen to be ineffectual for purposes of the war.

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Indeed the weakness of Congress was seen at the beginning of the war, and the wisest statesmen in Congress labored for a stronger form of government; but the exigencies of the times delayed action on such legislation, and the Continental Congress continued to act by common consent as the outward