where Jupiter buried him under mount Ætna. Hesiod says that he was thrown into Tartarus; and Pindar relates that the Phlegræan fields in Italy were placed upon him, while his head reaches to Etna. By day he spits out vapors, and by night flames and stones. By Echidna, he had Orthrus, Cerberus, the Chimæra, and the Lernæan hydra. The Nemean lion, the Hesperian dragon, the Caucasian vulture, and the Sphynx, with all noxious winds, were also his children. The whole fable of Typhon is nothing but a symbolical representation of subterranean winds, earthquakes, volcanoes, and their destructive effects.

Typhon; an Egyptian deity, son of Saturn and Rhea, and brother of Osiris, Areris, Isis and Nephthys. His mother's husband, according to Plutarch, was the Sun, who, having surprised her with Saturn, condemned her not to bear either in a year or in a month. Mercury, another of her lovers, relieved her in this emergency. By playing at dice with the Moon, he won the seventy-second part of each day, and of this composed five days, which he gave to Rhea, and which served the Egyptians as intercalary days to complete their year. Rhea gave birth to the third class of Egyptian gods, and Typhon was born on the third of the days thus obtained. Typhon aspired to the sovereignty of Egypt, possessed by his brother Osiris. His designs were for a long time frustrated by Isis, wife of Osiris; but the latter, while on his return from a tour round the world, was killed by his brother, who cut his body in pieces, and threw it into the Nile. During the reign of Typhon, all kings laid aside their crowns, in token that they had submitted to his supremacy. When Horus, the youngest son of Isis, had grown up, he overcame Typhon, after a severe conflict, and sent him bound to his mother. Isis, however, set him free, and the war was renewed. Typhon was defeated a second time, and continued his flight seven days upon an ass. He now begot Hierosolymus and Judæus, who, according to Tacitus, led the Jews out of Egypt. He is said to have escaped from Horus by changing himself into a crocodile. According to another account, Mercury or Hermes conquered him, and made cords of his tendons. Herodotus says that he hid himself in lake Serbonis (see the preceding article), which was thence called from him by the Egyptians. His sister Nephthys was his wife. With the Egyptians, he was an evil deity, the author of

all evil in the world. His name is said to signify the destructive south wind, which dried up the earth: according to others, it signifies the month of drought. All noxious and unclean creatures were sacred to him, as, for instance, the ass, the hippopotamus and the crocodile; and, on certain festal days, he was made a subject of derision and ridicule. In times of excessive heat, of disease, &c., it was customary to shut up some animals sacred to him in a dark place, and threaten them: if the evil was not averted, they were then slain. Red-haired men were treated in a similar manner: they were esteemed sacred to Typhon because he himself had red hair. He is commonly represented under the form of an ass, a crocodile, or a hippopotamus. He is also considered the symbol of the sea, which swallows up the Nile.

TYPHON, OF TYPHо (ecnephius vibrans, vortex); the same as hurricane. (See Hurricane, and Whirlwind.)

TYPHUS. (See Fever, vol. v., p. 105.
TYPOGRAPHY. (See Printing.)

TYR, in northern mythology; the son of Odin, brother of Balder; not to be confounded with Thor. He was the god of war and victory. The Danes and Icelanders still call Tuesday, after him, Tirsday, or Tyrs-day.

TYRANT (from the Greek rupavvos, which signified an absolute ruler). The word did not have originally the bad signification which we now attach to it; but as it is a rule which admits of very few exceptions, that the possessor of uncontrolled power, whether individual, corporation or multitude, will abuse it, tyrant came at length to signify an abuser of power, particularly of the chief power in the state. But all ranks and relations afford instances of the misuse of power, when unrestrained by other power, or by interest or affection. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, the Lacedæmonians established the government of the thirty tyrants, so called, in Athens, which, however, lasted only eight months. (See Attica.) In Roman history, the thirty ty rants were those generals who, under the worthless government of Gallienus (from 259 to 268 A. D.), declared themselves independent masters of the provinces which their armies occupied-Britain, Gaul, Spain, Rhætia, Illyria, Asia, Africa, and even Italy. But the legions themselves, and the successors of Gallienus, Claudius and Aurelian, were victorious over them. The most known among them are Posthumus, Lælianus, Lollianus, Æli

anus, Victorinus I and II, Marius, Tetricus I and II, Regalianus, Trebellianus, &c. The coins struck by them, and mostly very rare, are called the "coins of the tyrants."

TYRE; one of the most celebrated cities of antiquity, and, with its elder sister Sidon, the richest and most important commercial city of Phoenicia. The insignificant village of Sur, or Sour, in the pachalic of Acre, now occupies its site; lat. 33° 13′ N.; lon. 35° 13′ E.; eighteen miles south-west of Sidon. Sour is situated on a neck of land which was formerly an island, but was joined to the main land by Alexander, at the siege of Tyre. "There appear to have been," says Madden, "two cities of that name adjoining one another, the great Tyre being situated about five miles south of the now peninsular Tyre, which appears, from Strabo's description, to have been inhabited only by sailors, and persons connected with the shipping." As early as 1200 B. C., Tyre was a powerful city, enriched by commerce and refined by the arts. (See Phoenicia.) The ancient Gades (Cadiz) and Carthage were Tyrian colonies. Syria and Phoenicia had been some time under the power of Alexander the Great, when he made preparations for the conquest of this place. Built on an island, it was separated from the continent by an arm of the sea half a mile in breadth. The conqueror made several unsuccessful attempts to take it; but he at length formed a project to fill up the strait, and unite the island to the continent. The city was taken in the seventh month after it had been besieged. The Scriptures reckon among the number of the illustrious men of Tyre, king Hiram, the friend of David and Solomon. Two councils were held at Tyre; the first in 335, when Athanasius was stripped of his bishopric and banished from Alexandria, and the other in 448, the result of which was to absolve bishop Ibas, accused of supporting the errors of Nestorius. Tyre was the seat of an archbishop, subject to the patriarch of Antioch, and had fourteen suffragans dependent on it. Relics of the splendor of the ancient city are every where to be seen, as, numerous and beautiful columns stretched along the beach, ruins of an aqueduct, &c.

TYRE, ERA OF. (See Epoch.)

TYROL, OF TIROL; a province of the Austrian empire, bordering on Bavaria, Austria, Illyria, the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, Switzerland, and lake Con stance, comprising a superficial area of

1650 square miles, and a population of 774,457 souls. Of all the countries in Europe, Tyrol is the most exclusively mountainous. The Tyrolese Alps extend through the country. Some of the most remarkable summits are Ortler, Glockner and Brenner. (See Alps.) Tyrol resembles Switzerland: the valleys and lakes are less extensive, the cascades less numerous; but there is the same sublime scenery, similar lofty and perpendicular mountains, covered with perpetual snow and ice; the same contrast of the beautiful and terrific, of vineyards and wastes, of uninhabited summits, and populous valleys. No country contains a more romantic road than that over mount Brenner, along the Adige. (See Alps, Roads over.) The climate, in consequence of the height of the mountains, is cold. Among the productions are corn, wine, silk, hemp, flax and tobacco. The quantity of corn is not sufficient for the inhabitants. In many parts the raising of cattle is the principal employment. Almost all kinds of minerals have been found; but the only mines that have been worked to advantage are those of salt, iron, copper and calamine. There are no less than sixty mineral springs in the country. The Lech, Etsch, Isar, Drave and Brenta rise in Tyrol. The Inn, which rises in Switzerland, traverses it. The Rhine only touches its borders. Lakes Constance and Garda are also on its frontiers. The manufactures of silk and of metallic wares are the most important; cotton and linen goods are also manufactured. The position of Tyrol between Germany and Italy, and the facilities for passing over the Alps by good roads, render it the theatre of considerable transit trade. The Tyrolese wander all over Europe, and are even seen in America, peddling small wares; but they always return to spend their savings at home. The number which leave the country annually in this way is estimated at 30,000 or 40,000. The Tyrolese are chiefly of German extraction; only about 150,000 in the southern part of the country being Italians. The prevailing religion is Catholic. The Tyrolese is gay, lively, faithful, honest, and ardently attached to his country. Hunting is the chief amusement of the people. The cstates of Tyrol were confirmed in their former privileges in 1816. There are four estates-the prelates, the nobles, the citizens and the peasants. The seat of the government authorities is Innspruck; the principal fortress Kuffstein. This country was first conquered by the Romans

in the time of Augustus, and at a later period was traversed and desolated by various barbarous tribes. The Franks, and, after the extinction of the Carlovingian dynasty, the dukes of Bavaria, obtained the sovereignty; but some of the counts continued to be powerful. In 1359, Margaret Maultasche, the only daughter of one of these, conveyed her possessions to the duke of Austria; and Tyrol has since belonged to that power, with the exception of a short time from 1805 to 1814. (See Austria.)

TYRRHENIA, TYRSENIA; the ancient name of that part of Italy afterwards called Etruria. Niebuhr has proved that the Tyrrhenians, or Tyrsenians, were a Pelasgic race, and entirely different from the Etruscans, who occupied the country, and gave it their name at a later period. Much confusion has been produced in history from confounding the two nations. (See Etruria, and Tuscany.)

TYRTEUS, an ancient Greek poet, celebrated for his martial strains, is said to have been a native of Miletus, who settled at Athens in the capacity of poet, musician and school-master. He is described as being short, lame, and blind of one eye; but he possessed a manly and elevated soul. In the war between the Lacedæmonians and Messenians, the former were promised victory by the oracle, if they obtained a general from Athens. The Athenians, it is supposed in derision, sent them Tyrtæus, who so animated the Spartans by his spirited strains, and aided them so effectually by his advice, that the Messenians were reduced to subjection. For these services, the Spartans treated him with great respect, and granted him the rights of citizenship. The war poems of Tyrtæus must have been in high repute, as Horace joins him with Homer in that department. He also composed Moral Precepts, and a work On the Policy of the Lacedæmonians. Some fragments of his war poems remain, which are characterized by their masculine simplicity. They have been published with the other minor Greek poets, and separately by Klotz (Altenburg, 1767). Matthia has written a treatise De Tyrtai Carminibus (Altenburg, 1821).

TYRWHITT, Thomas, a profound scholar and distinguished critic, born in 1730, was educated at Eton and Oxford, where he took his degrees, and, in 1755, obtained a fellowship at Merton. He was acquainted with almost all the European languages, as well as those of classical antiquity. In 1756 he was appointed under secretary

in the war department, and, in 1762, succeeded Mr. Dyson as clerk of the house of commons. This office he resigned in 1768; and the remainder of his life was devoted to study. His death took place in 1786. Mr. Tyrwhitt published a valuable edition of the Canterbury Tales of Chaucer, with a Glossary (1778, 5 vols., 8vo.; reprinted, Oxford, 1798, 2 vols., 4to.); De Babrio (Gabriæ) Fabularum Esopearum Scriptore (London, 1776, 8vo.); Auctarium Dissertationis de Babrio adjecit Tyrwhitt sua Orphei de Lapidibus Edit. (1781, 8vo.); Rowley's (Chatterton's) Poems, with a Preface and Glossary (8vo.); Vindication of the Appendix to Rowley's Poems, with Observations on these Poems; Poems in English and Latin, which were his earliest productions. Mr. Tyrwhitt likewise left materials for a new edition of the Poetics of Aristotle, which was printed at Oxford, in 1794 (4to. and 8vo.).

TYTHES. (See Tithes.)

TYTLER, Alexander Fraser (lord Woodhouselee), one of the senators of the college of justice in Scotland, was born at Edinburgh, in 1747, and died in 1813. He published the Decisions of the Court of Session in the Form of a Dictionary; and, having been elected professor of history at Edinburgh, he printed, in 1783, Outlines of a Course of Lectures on Universal History (8vo.), which was followed by his popular work Elements of general History, Ancient and Modern (2 vols., 8vo.). Among the other works of lord Woodhouselee are Memoirs of Lord Kames, containing Sketches of the Progress of Literature in Scotland in the Eighteenth Century (1807, 2 vols., 4to.), with a Supplement (1810, 4to.), and an Essay on the Life of Petrarch (London, 1810, 8vo.). Memoirs of his life, by Alison, were published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. viii.

TZSCHIRNER, Henry Theophilus, doctor of theology, pastor in Leipsic, and professor in the university of that city, was born in 1778, at Mitweida, in the kingdom of Saxony. In 1796, he entered the university of Leipsic. In 1800, he received permission to lecture in Wittemberg; but, in 1801, the circumstances of his family obliged him to undertake the duties of the clerical office. He continued his studies, however, uninterruptedly, and, in 1805, published the first part of a History of Christian Apologetics, with a preface by Reinhard; but he never continued the work, having become quite dissatisfied with the plan of it. In the

same year, he was appointed professor ordinarius in Wittemberg. In 1809, he received a chair at Leipsic, where he showed himself a "rational supernaturalist," adhering to principles which he subsequently developed in his Letters on Reinhard's Confessions (Leipsic, 1811), as Reinhard had maintained that the entire separation of rationalism from supernaturalism was indispensable. In 1814, he accompanied the Saxon troops, under the grand duke of Weimar, as chaplain. After Lis return from the war, he published the results of his experience in his work On War (Leipsic, 1815). In 1815, the corporation of Leipsic appointed him a minister in the city. In 1821, he published his Explanation of Haller's Secession, and, in 1822, Catholicism and Protestantism in a Political Point of View, which, in a short time, went through three editions, and was translated into English, French and Dutch. Both these works were occasion

ed by Louis von Haller's becoming a Catholic. (See Haller.) Soon after, he manifested much interest in the Greek revolution, and, somewhat later, published his Danger of a German Revolution (2d ed., 1823), and System of Reaction (1824). In 1822, he undertook the editorship of the Magazine for Ministers. In several works, he attacked the arrogance of Catholicism and the mysticism of Protestants. He also wrote a series of Letters of a German to French Scholars (Chateaubriand, De la Mennais, Montlosier, Constant).* His last work was, How did it happen that France remained Catholic? in Pölitz's (q. v.) Annals of History and Politics. He died suddenly, in 1828, having many works in contemplation; among others, a History of the Church in his time. Tzschirner was enthusiastically beloved by his fellow-citizens, and much respected, even by the Catholics.

U; the twenty-first letter in the English alphabet; a vowel which is pronounced, in most languages, somewhat like o. But the mouth is less pointed, and the opening of the lips, therefore, less round, but closer, in pronouncing the former vowel. The sound which we refer to is that of the Italian or German u, corresponding to the English oo, as in tooth, or u in brute. The character u, in English, like the other vowel characters in this language, represents various sounds, as in the words tube, tub, bull. The pronunciation of u in the last-mentioned word is the same sound short which we find long in truth, rule and prudence. The German u is often changed, by the rules of grammar and etymology, into ❝, which corresponds to the French u, as in plus. The Germans early adopted the alphabet of the Romans, and, not finding there a character for the French u, used the compound character ui for this sound, being an intermediate sound between i (as in pin) and *Edited by Krug, though unfinished. The same was the case with his intended Fall of Paganism, edited by Niedner, which would have been probably his largest work.

u (as in brute). Some, however, soon wrote it ue, which became changed into and i, and these, in the current handwriting, into ű, as the e, in the German current hand, may be easily changed into two such dashes; but, in German printing, the sign put over the u, in such cases, is still a small e. In printing with Latin characters, the Germans substitute for ű ue, or ü. In the German words printed in this Encyclopedia, we have preferred to use the two dashes, as the use of ue, or ü, might lead an inexperienced reader into mistakes. A similar remark is applicable to the character ő in this work. U is so nearly related to o, that they often pass over into each other in various dialects. (See our article O.) The Latins called u a vowel, but said that it often had the power of a consonant, which we now designate by v; and it is true that u, before some vowels, cannot well be pronounced without partaking much of the nature of a consonant, as in uaco, uelox, silua, now written vaco, velox, silva. The primitive sound of u in these cases, however, does not resemble the present sound of v, but that of the English w, which