emperor insisted on their admission. Some envoys of the Protestant powers appeared, indeed, at Trent; those of Brandenburg in order to obtain from the pope the confirmation of prince Frederic in the archbishopric of Magdeburg, those of Würtemberg, and deputies from the cities of Upper Germany, to please the emperor, and perhaps also at the instigation of the elector, Maurice, whose own envoy arrived there Jan. 7, 1552, and obtained an audience Jan. 24, in a general assembly. To his extreme vexation, the cardinal legate was obliged to consent, that the Protestant theologians also should be heard, and provided with safe conducts. In order to cut off every possibility of an agreement with the Protestants, he had composed a decree on the consecration of priests, entirely in the spirit of Gregory VII; yet the emperor gained his object, and, in the fifteenth session, Jan. 25, this decree was not published, but only a postponement of the deliberations was resolved upon till the arrival of the Protestant divines. Under the imperial protection, the divines of Würtemberg and Upper Germany (from the cities) now also came to Trent, and the Saxons were already on their way thither, under the conduct of Melanchthon. These measures, however, were only a stratagem on the part of Saxony, in order to lull the emperor into security, as was soon evinced by the sudden commencement of hostilities on the part of the elector, Maurice, who forced the emperor to fly, and the members of the council to disperse. They resolved, accordingly, in the sixteenth session, April 8, upon its adjourn ment for two years, without having even commenced negotiations with the Protestants. Amidst these circumstances, of the greatest disadvantage for the authority of the pope, the treaty of Passau, and the religious peace of Augsburg, were concluded, and two Catholic princes, the Roman king Ferdinand, and the duke of Bavaria, even ventured, at their own risk, to grant to their Protestant subjects the privilege of the cup, though the council had refused them permission so to do. In France, the increasing power of the Protestants threatened to extort similar, and still greater privileges; and because pope Paul IV (1555—59) would hear nothing of any council held without the city of Rome, the French bishops thought of summoning a national synod, for the settlement of the religious disputes. Paul's successor, Pius IV, saw himself compelled, in 1560 and 1561, to reassemble the

general council. Although the Protestants did not accept the invitation, and the French government, rejecting the previous decrees of the council, demanded an entirely new and independent council, yet it was reopened, Jan. 8, 1562, by six legates of the pope, under the presidency of the cardinal, prince Hercules Gonzaga, of Mantua, with 112 bishops, mostly Italians, four abbots, and four generals of religious orders. In the eighteenth session, Feb. 26, a decree was merely published for preparing an index of prohibited books; but, in the nineteenth, May 4, and in the twentieth, June 14, it was again resolved to delay the publication of new decrees. This delaying was a common means of the Roman policy to avoid opposition; for France, as well as the emperor and Bavaria, repeated their propositions for the reformation of the church, and for the admission of the laity to the cup in the Lord's supper, the marriage of the priests, and a revision of the laws concerning forbidden meat; and, besides, all the bishops, except those from Italy, agreed in the opinion so odious to the pope, that the episcopal power and rights were not of papal but of divine origin. But, in consequence of the majority of the Italian bishops, the results of the votes were always in favor of the views of the Roman court. Thus there were passed, in the twenty-first and twenty-second sessions, July 16 and Sept. 17, 1562, the decrees respecting the celebration of the Lord's supper, and the sacrifice of mass, allowing preparatory explanations in the vernacular languages; but the laity were referred to the pope, as respected their demand for the cup in the Lord's supper. In these sessions, there were present 230 prelates, besides the ambassadors of the Catholic courts; and the number was increased, Nov. 13, by the arrival of the cardinal of Lorraine, with fourteen bishops, three abbots and eighteen theologians, from France, who not only gave new strength to the opposition, but also proposed thirty-four articles of reformation, which could not but be exceedingly offensive to the Papal party. This party, therefore, resorted again to delays, and postponed the next session from one month to another. Gonzaga, who was generally esteemed for his uprightness, but who was fettered in every step by the directions which he received from the Roman court, died meanwhile, March 2, 1563; and, in his place, the new legates Moroni and Stavageri presided, who amused the fathers with empty for

malities and theological disputes, so that at length the imperial and French courts were convinced that no reformation of the church was to be expected from this council, and still less a peace with the Protestants, who entirely rejected the council. Moreover, the cardinal of Lorraine was won over to the Papal party by secret promises of personal advantage; and, although the German, Spanish and French bishops had hitherto zealously Inaintained the divine origin of their power, yet, at length, either tired out by length of time, or influenced by intrigues, they consented to a decree respecting the consecration of the priests and the hierarchy, entirely in accordance with the views of the pope, which received public confirmation in eight canons, in the twentythird session, July 15, 1563. With equal pliability, they suffered to be passed, in the twenty-fourth session, Nov. 11, the decree respecting the sacrament of matrimony, in twelve canons, in which the celibacy of the clergy was enjoined; and, in the twenty-fifth and last sessions, Dec. 3 and 4, the hastily-composed decrees respecting purgatory, the worship of saints, relics and images, the monastic vows, indulgences, fasts, prohibition of certain kinds of food, and an index of prohibited books; the last of which, together with the composition of a catechism and breviary, was left to the pope. In the decrees of reformation, published in these last five sessions, which contained mostly insignificant or self-evident ordinances, or at least the same repeated only with different words, provision was made for the removal of the prevailing abuses, for the conferment and administration of spiritual offices and sinecures, &c. The most useful provision was that for founding seminaries for the education of the clergy, and the examination of those to be ordained. At the close of the last session, the cardinal of Lorraine exclaimed, "Cursed be all heretics!" and the prelates joined in the cry, "Cursed, cursed!" so that the dome resounded with their imprecations. Thus ended the council of Trent, the decrees of which, signed by 255 prelates, perpetuated the separation of the Protestants from the Catholic church, and acquired, with the latter, the authority of a symbolical book. The pope confirmed them, Jan. 26, 1564, in their whole extent. The chief object of this council, the gaining back of the Protestants to the Catholic church, was not attained, and the points of dissention between the Roman and the Greek 29

VOL. XII.

churches were marked out so distinctly, as to leave no hope of any future reconciliation. By its decrees, the Catholic doctrines were more exactly determined, and many abuses remedied, though the worst and most pernicious were left. These decrees were received without limitation in Italy, Portugal and Poland; in the Spanish dominions they were restricted by the statutes of the kingdom; in France, Germany and Hungary, on the contrary, they met with an opposition which gradually resulted in a silent approbation of the doctrinal decrees on the part of the Catholics, but has always prevented the reception of the decrees of reformation, as irreconcilable with many laws of the respective countries, although the real improvements ordained were cheerfully received and put in execution. For the explanation and interpretation of the decrees of this council, Sixtus V, in 1588, instituted a council of cardinals, the continuation of which was found necessary by his successors. The works which have been written in support of, and opposition to, the council of Trent, the last that has been held, are very numerous, and many exhibit great talent. During the sessions of the council, Calvin wrote his antidote against the council of Trent, and, in 1560, when pope Pius VII ordered the reassembling of the council, the Lutheran princes of Germany issued their Concilii Tridentini decretis opposita Gravamina, and even down to recent times, works have continued to be written on it, though the notions of Protestants are now too well settled to induce them to spend much time in refuting its decrees. The fundamental error connected with this council was, that Catholics and Protestants could suppose it possible to reconcile their differences by means of a council, which could only bring them out in stronger relief. It was, in fact, the great mistake of the time to suppose that truth could be settled by religious disputations. But, though it is easy to see now that a union between the Catholics and Protestants was impossible, it was not easy to see it then; and we can hardly blame men for wishing to produce harmony in Christendom. Even at a much later period, men like Leibnitz believed in the possibility of a reunion of the churches.

TRENTON; the metropolis of New Jersey, in Hunterdon county, on the east bank of Delaware river, opposite to the falls; ten miles south-west of Princeton, thirty north-east of Philadelphia, sixty

south-west of New York, one hundred and sixty-seven from Washington, lat. 40° 14′ N.; lon. 74° 39′ W.; population in 1820, 3942; in 1830, 3925. It is the fourth town in size in New Jersey. It is pleasantly situated, and incorporated with city privileges. It contains the state and county buildings, and houses of worship for Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Methodists and Friends. The Delaware is navigable to this place for sloops, but is not navigable, except for boats of moderate size, above the falls. At the foot of the falls is an elegant covered bridge across the river. Trenton is distinguished, in the history of the revolution, for the victory gained by general Washington over the British army, on the 26th of December, 1776. The American army crossed the Delaware on the night of the 25th, during a violent storm of snow and rain, and attacked the enemy on the north and west parts of the town. A detach ment of the army had been ordered to cross the river and secure a position at the bridge, to prevent the escape of the British troops; but, owing to the extreme difficulty of crossing the river, this part of the plan failed, and almost 500 of the troops escaped. The British lost 20, who were killed, and about 1000, who surrendered. The American loss was 2 killed, 2 frozen to death, 5 wounded.

TREPANNING; the operation of opening the skull, by means of a surgical instrument, adapted for the purpose. The instrument used is called a trepan, or trephine, and consists of a handle, to which is fixed a circular saw, or hollow iron cylinder, of about an inch in diameter, called the crown, from the centre of which projects a sharp perforator, called the centre-pin. The upper part of the centre-pin screws into a hole at the top of the crown; its use is to steady the trepan before the teeth of the saw have made a sufficient furrow to prevent it from slipping; for which purpose it is pushed down below the level of the teeth of the saw, and fixed in the centre of the bone to be removed. The trephine differs from the trepan in having its crown fixed upon and worked by a common transverse handle, like a gimlet, instead of being turned by a handle, like a wimble or centre-bit, as is the case with the trepan. The former is used in England and the U. States: the latter is preferred by the surgeons of continental Europe. The trephine performs only a semicircular motion, imparted by the pronation and supination of the hand,

the teeth being so arranged as to cut, whether the instrument is turned from right to left or the reverse. The trepan is turned completely round and round on its own axis. The operation is performed in the following manner:-The hair is first removed from the portion of the skull to be taken out, and incisions, in the form of a cross, or of the letter T or V, are made quite through the scalp, in order to expose the bone. The centre-pin is then fixed, the trephine or trepan is put in motion, as above described, and the operation is continued until the bone is sawn through, which is then removed by the forceps. The divided scalp is finally placed, as nearly as possible, in its natural situation, and dressed. The aperture in the skull gradually becomes closed with soft granulations, which slowly acquire a hard consistency. Until this is the case, the patient must wear a thin piece of horn, or plate of metal over the aperture. The operation of trepanning is resorted to only for the purpose of relieving the brain from pressure. Such pressure may be caused by the depression of a portion of the cranium, or it may be produced by an extravasation of blood, or by the lodgment of matter betwixt the skull and the dura mater, occasioned by a blow upon the head, or the inflammation of the membranes of the brain.

TRESSAN, Louis Elisabeth de la Vergne, count of, was born in 1705, at Mans, went at an early age to Paris, and became acquainted with Voltaire, Fontenelle, and other celebrated men, by whom he was confirmed in his love of literature. In 1723, he entered the army, and afterwards travelled in Italy. When the war broke out between France and Austria, he was appointed aid-de-camp to the duke de Noailles, with whom he was at the siege of Kehl. He also distinguished himself at Esslingen and Philipsburg, in 1734. In 1741, he was employed in Flanders. In 1744, he was made marechalde-camp, and served at the sieges of Mcnin, Ypres, and Furnes. He was aid-decamp to the king at the battle of Fontenoi, where he was wounded. In 1750, he was appointed governor of Toulouse and French Lorraine, and, soon after, made grand marshal to the ex-king of Poland, at Luneville, where he remained till the death of that prince. In 1781, he was admitted into the French academy, and took up his residence in Paris, where he died, October 31, 1783. He published a translation of the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto, which, together with extracts

and translations of many other Italian and old French romances, appeared in Les Euvres Choisies de Tressan (Paris, 1787-91, 12 vols., 8vo). He also wrote Reflexions sur l'Esprit ; Discours, prononcé à l'Acad. de Nanci; Eloges, &c.

TREVES (in German, Trier; anciently, Augusta Trevirorum); a city in the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine, capital of a government of the same name, formerly capital of an electorate and archbishopric, on the Moselle; lon. 6° 38′ E.; lat. 49° 47' N.; population, 9608. It has a picturesque situation in the centre of a large valley lying along the Rhine, and open to the north-west and south-east, but confined on the other sides by gentle eminences covered with vines; and the environs abound with gardens. It contains the late elector's palace, now converted into barracks, a cathedral, nine churches, seven convents, three hospitals, a lyceum, and a public library. A university was founded here in 1454, but converted by the French, in 1794, into a central school, now styled a gymnasium. Treves is the most ancient, and among the most celebrated, cities of Germany. It contains many Roman antiquities: coins, medals and inscriptions are frequently dug up; and the remains of the baths are extensive. The archbishopric of Treves was the oldest in Germany; the archbishop was the second elector (q. v.) of the empire, and had the title of "arch-chancellor of the holy Roman empire, for Gaul and Arles." By the peace of Luneville (1801), Treves was annexed to France, but, since the peace of Paris, has belonged to Prussia. The gymnasium has a library of 70,000 volumes and 2000 manuscripts. Among the churches, that of Our Lady is one of the finest monuments of German architecture. The arch called the black gate, from its color, is the most important Roman monument in Germany.

TREVISO, DUKE OF. (See Mortier.)
TREWES. (See Highlands.)

TRIAD (three in one). The number three was thought holy in the earliest antiquity. (See, for instance, Numbers xix, 12.) This must have its reason in the nature of the number. The number three represents to us unity and opposition, the principle and the moments of developement, or opposition, and the connecting unity (synthesis). It is the first uneven number in which the first even one is contained; herein lie its peculiar signification and perfection. Even in antiquity, it could not escape attention, that this number is to be found wherever va

riety is developed. Hence we have beginning, middle, end, represented in the heavens by rise, point of culmination, and setting; morning, noon, evening, and evening, midnight, morning; and in general, in the great divisions of time, the past, the present, and the future. In space, also, this number three occurs, as in above, midst, and below; right, midst, and left; and in general, in the dimensions of space, as length, breadth, and thickness or depth. To the eye, the number three is presented in the regular figure of the triangle, which has been applied to numberless symbolical representations; the ear perceives it most perfectly in the harmonic triad. (See the next paragraph.) As the triple is also the basis of symmetry, the three-figured form is found in architecture and in simple utensils, without any particular reference to symbolical or other significations. Of this kind are the triglyphs in architecture, the tripod, the trident, the three thunderbolts of Jupiter, the ancient three-stringed lyre; though the number three has in these objects, as well as in the three-headed Cerberus, other more symbolical relations. Even in our thoughts, we meet the triad in position (thesis), opposition (antithesis), and union (synthesis).

Triad, Harmonic; a compound of three radical sounds, consisting of a fundamental note, its third, and its fifth. Of these three sounds, the gravest is called the fundamental, the fifth the excluded sound, and the third the harmonical mean. This division of the fifth into two thirds is performed in two ways; first, harmonically; as when the greater third is lowest, in which case, the triad is said to be perfect and natural; secondly, arithmetically; when the lesser third is lowest ; and then the triad is called flat or imperfect.

TRIAL. (See Jury, and Process, and Mittermaier's German Penal Procedure, &c., compared with the English and French (2 vols., Heidelburg, 1832).

TRIANGLE, in geometry; a figure of three sides and three angles. Triangles are either plane or spherical. A plane triangle is one contained by three right lines; and a spherical triangle is one contained by three arcs of great cir cles of the sphere. Triangles are denominated, from their angles, right, obtuse, and acute. A right-angled triangle is that which has one right angle; an obtuseangled triangle is such as has one obtuse angle; and an acute-angled triangle is that which has all its angles acute. The triangle is the most important figure

in geometry; and its various lines bear the most interesting relations to each other. (See Trigonometry.)

TRIANGULAR COMPASSES are such as have three legs, or feet, whereby to take off any triangle at once; much used in the construction of maps, globes, &c.

TRIANGULAR NUMBERS are a kind of polygonal numbers, being the sums of arithmetical progressions, the difference of whose terms is 1. Thus, from the arithmetical numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, are formed the triangular numbers 1,3,6, 10, 15, 21.

TRIANGULATING. In surveying, the larger the space the more complicated is the labor. A number of points are taken as the apexes of the angles of triangles, into which the space is supposed to be divided. This process is called triangulating. Triangles are chosen on account of the ease, with which, if some parts of these figures are given, the others can be calculated. In those surveys in which the spheroidal form of the earth must be taken into consideration, astronomical operations are necessary; accurate instruments are to be prepared for measuring angles, such as theodolites, reflecting sextants, &c. The longitude and latitude of places, at least 140 miles distant from each other, must be accurately determined, and their meridians must be marked on the ground. These points then form a network, to be afterwards filled up, and are supported by a great basis, obtained as well from accurate measurement as from trigonometrical calculations or careful triangulating. This basis is situated, if possible, in a meridian, and is astronomically determined. In each of the chief triangles, a system of smaller triangles is calculated; the whole is then divided into square sections, each of which contains some of the points trigonometrically ascertained in what we have called the network. These furnish the means of surveying in detail, and of examination.

TRIANON; the name of two palaces near Versailles. Great Trianon (le Grand Trianon) has a front of 384 feet, and is remarkable for the beauty and luxuviance of its gardens, laid out by Lenôtre. The palace, built by Mansard in the Oriental style, is but one story high. At the end of the park of Great Trianon is le Petit Trianon (Little Trianon), which consists merely of a pavilion in the Roman style, with English gardens. This little palace was the favorite resort of Marie Antoinette, and was therefore exposed to the violence of the populace during the

revolution. Great Trianon was much visited by Napoleon, and the decree of Aug. 3, 1810, was dated here. (See Continental System.) Romulus divided the

TRIBE (tribus). inhabitants of Rome into three bodies, thence called tribes, each of which had a presiding officer (tribunus), and was divided into ten curia. Servius Tullius divided the inhabitants into four parts, which still retained the name of tribes. To these four city tribes (tribus urbana) were added the rural tribes (tribus rustice), the number of which was gradually increased to thirty-one. In the comitia tributa, in which the people voted by tribes, the lower magistrates, the ordinary magistrates, and the provincial magistrates, were chosen, laws were made, and criminal trials, not capital, conducted, &c.

TRIBONIAN, a celebrated statesman under Justinian, a native of Side, in Pamphylia, was distinguished for his great learning, particularly in jurisprudence, which gained him the favor of the emperor, and raised him to the highest offices of state. He became questor of the palace and consul; but his vices made him obnoxious, and he was removed (532), in consequence of a sedition, but again restored to his former dignities. He was notorious for avarice and taking bribes ; but his learning and ability preserved him the confidence of Justinian, who named him, with nine other civilians, to prepare the new code, with sixteen others to compose the digest or pandects, and with two others to draw up the institutes. (See Civil Law.) Tribonian was charged with being the secret enemy of Christianity, with atheism, and attachment to paganism; but these charges are not sustained by sufficient proof. He died 545.

TRIBRACHYS. (See Rhythm.)

TRIBUNAL, with the Romans; an elevated place where the pretor (q. v.) sat upon his sella curulis, when acting as judge: his counsellors sat near him. In the camp, the Roman general had also a tribunal of turf, where he gave judgment.

TRIBUNAT. The French constitution of Dec. 15, 1799, projected by Bonaparte and Sieyes, committed the legislative power, though more in appearance than in reality, to a body (corps legislatif) of 300 men, and a tribunat of 100 members chosen by the conservative senate, from the three lists of candidates proposed by the departmental colleges. To the three consuls was reserved the right of initiating laws; to the tribunat, that of delibe