slowly, and is converted into titanic acid by heating it with nitre, with great difficulty. Before the blow-pipe, it dissolves in bi-phosphate of soda, and forms a very dark-red glass. The anatase, an ore of titanium, described at the close of this article, appears to be wholly composed of this oxide. Titanic acid occurs native in the rutile. (See the close of the present article.) Its color is reddish-brown, and it has a specific gravity of 4.249. The native acid is, however, slightly impure, from the presence of iron: when the iron is separated, the acid presents a white color. It reddens litmus paper, after having been exposed to a high temperature. It resembles zirconia so closely as to be with difficulty distinguished from that earth. They may, however, be easily recognised from a blow-pipe experiment. Titanic acid, when fused with borax, or bi-phosphate of soda, in the exterior flame, gives a yellow or colorless glass, which in the interior flame becomes deep purple, or even brownish-black, if the acid be in excess. When titanic acid and zirconia occur together in the same mineral, we are unable to effect their separation: such minerals, in the present state of chemical knowledge, cannot be analyzed. Titanium unites with chlorine to form a chloride. It is formed by passing the gas over ignited titanic acid and charcoal in a porcelain tube. It is a fluid, perfectly transparent and colorless, heavier than water, and boils at 275° Fahr. When mingled with water, it is converted into muriatic acid and titanic acid. When titanic acid, fluor spar, and sulphuric acid, are mixed together in a leaden retort, a yellow-colored liquid is gradually obtained, which water immediately converts into fluoric acid and titanic acid. This is probably a fluoride of titanium. A phosphuret and a sulphuret of titanium have both been formed. Nothing is known respecting the combinations which titanium is capable of forming with selenium, tellurium, arsenic, antimony, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and columbium. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to combine it with silver, copper and lead. It has been combined with iron, and gave rise to an alloy of a gray color, interspersed with yellowcolored brilliant particles. It would appear that the affinity of titanium for other metals is, on the whole, very weak.

Ores of Titanium. These are five in number; viz. rutile, anatase, ilmenite, crichtonite and sphene. 1. Rutile, or titanite, occurs crystallized, in right

square prisms, the primary form of the species,-which are often terminated at one extremity by a four-sided pyramid, whose faces incline to the corresponding lateral ones under angles of 122° 45. The lateral edges of the prism are often truncated, and the primary prismatic sides are liable to numerous vertical striæ. Macled forms, or twin crystals, are very common, whose appearance is that of a prism bent to an angle of 114° 30'; sometimes the geniculations are frequently repeated. The cleavage is parallel to the primary planes; lustre metallic adamantine; color reddish-brown, passing into red, sometimes yellowish; streak very pale brown; translucent to opaque; hardness about that of feldspar; specific gravity 4.24. It also occurs massive, the individuals being of various sizes and strongly connected. Alone before the blow-pipe, it is infusible, but gives, with borax, a yellowish glass, which assumes an amethyst color when further reduced. It consists of titanic acid. It occurs, generally, in imbedded crystals, either in quartz engaged in gneiss, mica-slate, or chlorite-slate; or in beds consisting of quartz, garnet and augite. It is likewise found in transparent crystals of quartz. Imbedded crystals in quartz have been found at Rosenau in Hungary, Teinach on the Bacher, in Stiria, and at various places along the Alps. Very perfect crystals occur in the Sanalpe in Carinthia, also at St. Gothard. Fine pebbles of rutile are found in Transylvania, and called nigrine, on account of their black color. At St. Yrieix, in France, and in the province of Guadalaxara, in Spain, twin crystals occur of very large dimensions. Other localities are Bohemia, Siberia and Brazil. In the U. States, very perfect crystals, and in great quantity, are found at Windsor, in Massachusetts, where they occur in seams of quartz traversing chlorite slate. Many other places might be mentioned in New England where rutile has been met with; but the above-mentioned is the only productive locality. 2. Anatase. This species is much more rare than that just described, but is exceedingly interesting from the beauty of its crystals, and from the nature of its composition, it being regarded as composed solely of the protoxide of the metal. Its crystals are small, and of the form of the octahedron, with a square base, the pyramids meeting under an angle of 136° 47', which is the primary form of the species. The cleavage is parallel to the primary planes, and to the

longer axis of the crystals; fracture conchoidal, though with difficulty observed; lustre metallic adamantine; color various shades of brown, more or less dark, also indigo-blue; streak white, semi-transparent; hardness nearly that of feldspar; specific gravity 3.82. It dissolves with difficulty in the salt of phosphorus, before the blow-pipe, and the portion not melted becomes white and semi-transparent. It occurs in narrow, irregular veins, accompanied by albite, quartz, mica, and axinite. Its chief localities are Bourg d'Oisans in Dauphiny, and in Switzerland; it is also found in Cornwall, in Norway, in Spain and Brazil. 3. Ilmenite. Axotomous iron ore (Mohs); menaccanite? iserine? The primary form of this species is believed to be a rhomboid of 85° 59′. It occurs massive, rarely crystallized in what are described by professor Kupfer as being variously modified four-sided prisms; color black; streak brownish; opaque; lustre on the fracture shining and resinous; fracture conchoidal; no visible cleavage; hardness between apatite and feldspar; specific gravity 4.6-4.8. It is unalterable before the blow-pipe, and consists of

It occurs in the Ilmen mountains of the Ural chain. The menaccanite, a substance found in small, black, angular grains, at Menaccan, in Cornwall, and at Botany Bay, as well as the iserine, found at Iser, in Silesia, and some other places, are believed to fall within the present species. 4. Crichtonite resembles very closely the ilmenite. It occurs in very small crystals, in the form of acute rhomboids, having the summits replaced, and being otherwise variously modified by secondary planes, the only cleavage being at right angles to the axis of the rhomboid. It is perfectly black, opaque, and of a shining lustre; fracture conchoidal. It

is harder than fluor. Before the blowpipe, it conducts much like ilmenite, but is believed to be a silicate of titanium. It occurs, along with anatase, on crystals of quartz, at Dauphiny. 5. Sphene (silico-calcareous oxide of titanium) occurs for the most part in well-defined crystals, which have the general figure of very flat octahedrons, but which are deriv24

VOL. XII.

ed from an oblique rhombic prism of 133° 30′, parallel to which a distinct cleavage may be effected. Fracture imperfect conchoidal or uneven; lustre adamantine, sometimes inclining to resinous; color brown, yellow, gray and green; streak white; translucent on the edges; rarely transparent; hardness about that of apatite; specific gravity 3.46. Besides occurring in crystals, it is found massive, with a granular or lamellar composition. Before the blow-pipe, the yellow varieties do not change their color: all, the rest become yellow. They intumesce a little, and melt on the edges into a dark-colored enamel. They are soluble in heated nitric acid, and leave a residue of silex. Sphene is composed of lime 32.20, oxide of titanium 33.30, and silex 28.00. It occurs in small nodules or crystals, imbedded in gneiss and beds of sienite. It is also found in white limestone, along with augite, scapolite, garnet and hornblende. It comes from several districts of the Sanalpe in Carinthia, where it is found in a coarse-grained gneiss. Other European localities are, near Dresden in Saxony, Arendal in Norway, St. Gothard, and Scotland. In the U. States it has been found in numerous places; but no where so abundantly as at Roger's rock, on the shore of lake George, where it occurs in gneiss with augite and hornblende. It is also found at Bolton in Massachusetts, in limestone, along with petalite, augite and scapolite, and at Amity, Orange county, New York.

TITHES, OF TYTHES; the tenth part of the increase yearly arising from the profits of lands, the stock upon lands, and the industry of the occupants, allotted to the clergy for their maintenance. The custom of giving and paying tithes is very ancient. In Gen. xiv. 20, Abraham gives Melchisedek the tenth of all the spoils taken from the four kings defeated by him. Tithes were first legally enjoined by Moses. They were not established by Christ. The Christian priests and the ministers of the altar lived at first upon the alms and oblations of the devout. For the first three hundred years after Christ, no mention is made in ecclesiastical history of any such thing as tithes. The first authority produced (setting aside the apostolical constitutions, which few of the advocates of tithes will insist on) is a provincial synod at Cullen, in 356, in which tithes are voted to be God's rent. After the church had enjoyed tithes without disturbance for two or three centuries, the laity, in the eighth century, ის

produce of land, or of the price of a certain portion, a certain sum of money is to be paid in full compensation for all tax or tithe, the tax becomes, in this case, exactly of the same nature with the land tax of England. It neither rises nor falls with the rent of the land. It neither encourages nor discourages improvement. The tithe, in the greater part of those parishes which pay what is called a modus, in lieu of all other tithes, is a tax of this kind. It is well known, and has often been lamented, even by the clergy themselves, that this method of raising a revenue for their subsistence, is a continual source of dispute between the clergy and their parishioners, and contributes to obstruct the usefulness of their ministry. In Holland, and some other Protestant countries, the civil magistrates have adopted what some would have thought a better plan, by allowing their ministers a fixed stipend, paid out of the public funds. The custom of paying tithes, or of offering a tenth of what a man enjoys, has not only been practised under the old and the new law, but we also find something like it among the heathens. Xenophon, in the fifth book of the expedition of Cyrus, gives us an inscription upon a column, near the temple of Diana, by which the people were warned to offer the tenth part of their revenues every year to that goddess. The Babylonians and Egyptians gave their kings a tenth of their revenues. (See Aristotle, in his Economics, lib. ii., Diodorus Siculus, lib. v., and Strabo, lib. xv.) Afterwards the Romans exacted of the Sicilians a tenth of the corn they reaped; and Appian tells us, that those who broke up, or tilled, any new grounds, were obliged to carry a tenth of their produce to the treasury. The Romans offered a tenth of all they took from their enemies to the gods; whence the name of Jupiter Prædator: the Gauls, in like manner, gave a tenth to their god Mars, as we learn in the Commentaries of Cæsar. Authors have been perplexed to find the origin of a custom established among so many people of different manners and religions, to give a tenth to their kings, their gods, or their ministers of religion. Grotius takes it to arise hence, that the number ten is the most known, and the most common, among all nations, by reason of the number of fingers, which is ten. On this account, he thinks the commandments of God were reduced to ten, for people to retain them with greater ease; and the philosophers established ten categories, &c.

TITIAN, OF TIZIANO VERCELLI, one of the most distinguished of the great Italian painters, was born at Capo del Cadore, in the Alps of Friuli, in 1480. His early indication of talent for the arts of design induced his parents to place him under Sebastiano Zuccati of Trevigi, and subsequently under Giovanni Bellini of Venice. He soon made an extraordinary proficiency, and attained so exact an imitation of his master's style, that their works could scarcely be distinguished. This style, however, was stiff and dry, so that when the young artist had seen the performances of Giorgione, which were of a more free and elegant character, he quitted his former master, and soon, by his facility, excited envy in his new one. At the same time, he by no means neglected other branches of study, but made so great a progress under proper instructers, that at the age of twenty-three he was celebrated as one of the most promising poets of the day. With great judgment, however, he devoted himself to the pursuit for which he felt the most decided predilection, and attained to great perfection in landscape, portrait, and history. He was particularly remarkable for his accurate observation and faithful imitation of nature, as regards the tones and shades of coloring: his taste in design was less conspicuous; and it is in portraits and landscapes that he is deemed unrivalled. Indeed, in the opinion of Mr. Fuseli, he is to be regarded as the father of portrait painting, as relates to resemblance, character, grace, and tasteful costume. His principal residence was at Venice, though he occasionally accepted invitations from princes to their courts. At Ferrara, he executed the portraits of the duke and duchess, also that of Ariosto, then a resident there. He was sent for to Rome by cardinal Farnese, and attended Charles V at Bologna, who was so pleased with the portrait which he made of him, that he conferred on him the order of knighthood, and granted him a pension, which was afterwards augmented by Philip II. Most of the princes and leading men of the day were ambitious of being painted by him, so that his pictures are doubly valuable as portraits of eminent individuals and for beauty of execution. He resided some time both in Spain and Germany; but his home was Venice, where he lived in great splendor, and maintained the rank due to his genius. He retained the spirit and vigor of youth to the advanced age of ninety-six, and then died of the plague, in 1576. This

great painter had his weaknesses, the chief of which was an extreme jealousy of rival excellence, which rendered him ungenerous to Tintoretto, and even to a brother of his own. He is the first of all colorists, but less eminent in other respects. In general, his male forms are less elastic than muscular, while his females partake too much of the fair, dimpled, soft, Venetian figures, which are too full for elegance. He left two sons, one of whom obtained preferment in the church; the other became a distinguished painter, but being addicted to alchemy, wasted his patrimony and neglected his art. Of the historical pictures of Titian, two are peculiarly excellent, a Last Supper in the Escurial, and Christ crowned with Thorns in a church at Milan. The engravings from his pictures, including landscapes and pieces, cut in wood, amount to more than six hundred.

TITICACA; a lake in Bolivia, 240 miles in circuit, and 400 feet in depth. The water, though neither salt nor brackish, is muddy, and nauseous to the taste. It contains several islands; one was anciently a mountain, levelled by order of the incas. It gave to the lake its own name of Titicaca, which, in the Indian lauguage, signifies a mountain of lead. Lon. 69° 56′ W.; lat. 16° 10 S.

TITLE; one of the various significations of this word is a term by which the rank or office of an individual is denoted. In the articles Counsellor, Majesty, and Ceremonial, the extreme to which the Germans have gone in attaching titles to every office, and even extending the same to the wife of the officer, is treated, and several curious examples are given. In England and the U. States, no title is given to civil officers, except as a matter of courtesy or of convenience, to distinguish between individuals of the same name. In some parts of the U. States, some such means of distinction are required by the commonness of particular names, many more individuals being to be found with the same surname, than, usually, in European countries. But the cases in which an individual, holding a civil office, are addressed by an official designation, are very few. With military titles, however, the case is different. Having little of the reality of military distinction, we seem disposed to make the most of the semblance, and generals, colonels, and captains, swarm throughout the land. Every traveller has his fling at the military dignitaries whom he meets behind the bar of a tavern, or on the box of a

stage-coach. In some places, it is even an ordinary vulgarism to give the title of captain to strangers. There are also certain terms of courtesy used in the superscription of letters, the principal of which (to say nothing of the chivalric term of esquire) are the reverend, addressed to clergymen, and the honorable, to judges, members of congress, and the higher branch of the state legislatures. These will, probably, before long, share the fate of other anti-republican distinctions. The governor and lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts are the only public functionaries in this country who are provided by law with titles of honor, the constitution of that state having given to the former the title of his excellency, to the latter that of his honor. The Germans, having so enormous a mass of titles, have divided them into titles of rank (Standestitel), e. g. those of princes, nobles, &c., by which they are distinguished from commoners; titles of honor, as excellency, grace, highness; and titles of office, as professor, counsellor, superintendent. The holders of this latter class of titles are subdivided into real (as real counsellor, &c.), when actually possessed of the office denoted, and titular, when they have merely the title of an office, as, for example, so many counsellors of legation, court-counsellors, &c. Almost all monarchs assume titles taken from countries over which they have no sway. In some cases, this originates from a real or supposed claim of the crown upon the country in question; in some, the sovereignty asserted may be actually exercised, under certain circumstances, e. g. the king of Prussia calls himself duke of Mecklenburg, because, under certain circumstances, the government of that country would devolve upon him. In some cases, it is a mere pompous form; for instance, the emperor of Austria calls himself king of Jerusalem, and the king of Portugal king of the navigation, conquest and commerce of Æthiopia, Arabia and India. Generally, monarchs have a less and a great or full title, just as they have two coats of arms. That epithet which is added to the word majesty, in the case of the different sovereigns of Europe, is generally called the predicate. These epithets are, Most Christian (q. v.), for France; Catholic (q. v.), for Spain; Most Faithful, for Portugal; Apostolic (q. v.), for Hungary. 2. Title signifies the right of a person to some particular thing. 3. The heads of the various chapters in the corpus juris (q. v.), and other law books, &c., are called titles.