THE AMERICAN PEOPLE.

BY JOHN R. COMMONS.

[John Rogers Commons, economist; born Darke county, O., October 13, 1862; graduated from Oberlin, 1888; A. M., 1890; student Johns Hopkins, 1888-90; professor sociology Oberlin college, 1892; Indiana university, 1893-95; Syracuse university, 1895-99; expert agent industrial commission, 1902; assistant secretary National Civic Federation, 1903; professor of sociology, University of Wisconsin. Author: The Distribution of Wealth; Social Reform and the Church; Proportional Representation, etc.] Copyright 1903, 1904 by The Chautauqua Press

"All men are created equal." So wrote Thomas Jefferson and so agreed with him the delegates from the American colonies. But we must not press too closely nor insist on the literal interpretation of the words. They were not publishing a scientific treatise on human nature, nor describing the physical, intellectual and moral qualities of different races and different individuals, but they were bent upon an intensely practical object in politics and government. They desired to sustain before the world the cause of independence by such appeals as they thought would have effect; and certainly the appeal to the sense of equal rights before God and the law is the most powerful that can be addressed to the masses of any people. This is the very essence of our American democracy, that one man should have just as large opportunity as any other man to make the most of himself, to come forward and achieve high standing in any calling to which he is inclined. To do this the bars of privilege have one by one been thrown down, the suffrage has been extended to every man, and public office has been opened to anyone who can persuade his fellow voters or their representatives to select him.

But there is another side to the successful operations of democracy. It is not enough that equal opportunity to participate in making and enforcing the laws should be vouchsafed to all-it is equally important that all should be capable of such participation. The individuals, or the classes, or the races, who through any mental or moral defect, are unable to assert themselves beside other individuals, classes, or races, and to enforce their right to an equal voice in determining

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the laws and conditions which govern all, are just as much deprived of the privilege as though they were excluded by the constitution. In the case of individuals, when they sink below the level of joint participation, we recognize them as be longing to a defective, or criminal or pauper class, and we provide for them, not on the basis of their rights, but on the basis of charity or punishment. Such classes are exceptions in point of numbers, and we do not feel that their non participation is a flaw in the operations of democratic government. But when a social class or an entire race is unable to command that share in conducting government to which the laws entitle it, we recognize at once that democracy as a practical institution has in so far broken down, and that, under the forms of democracy, there has developed a class oligarchy or a race oligarchy.

Two things, therefore, are necessary for a democratic government such as that which the American people have set before themselves; first, equal opportunities before the law; second, equal ability of classes and races to use those opportunities. If the first is lacking we have legal oligarchy; if the second is lacking we have actual oligarchy disguised as democracy.

Now, it must be observed that, compared with the first two centuries of our nation's history, the present generation is somewhat shifting its ground regarding democracy. While it can never rightly be charged that our forefathers overlooked the inequalities of races and individuals, yet, more than the present generation, did they regard with hopefulness the educational value of democracy. True enough, they said, the black man is not equal to the white man, but once free him from his legal bonds, open up the schools, the professions, the businesses, and the offices to those of his number who are most aspiring, and you will find that, as a race, he will advance favorably in comparison with his white fellow citizens.

It is now more than thirty years since these opportunities and educational advantages were given to the negro, not only on equal terms but actually on terms of preference over the whites, and the fearful collapse of the experiment is recognized even by its partisans as something that was inevitable in the

nature of the race at that stage of its development. The race question in America has found its most intense expression in the relations between the white and the negro races, and has there shown itself to be the most fundamental of all American social and political problems. For it was this race question that precipitated the civil war, with the ominous problems that have followed upon that catastrophe; and it is this same race problem that now diverts attention from the treatment of those pressing economic problems of taxation, corporations, trusts and labor organizations which themselves originated in the civil war. The race problem in the south is only one extreme of the same problem in the great cities of the north, where popular government, as our forefathers conceived it, has been displaced by one man power, and where a profound distrust of democracy is taking hold upon the educated and property holding classes who fashion public opinion.

This changing attitude toward the educational value of self government has induced a more serious study of the nature of democratic institutions and of the classes and races which are called upon to share in them. As a people whose earlier hopes have been shocked by the hard blows of experience, we are beginning to pause and take invoice of the heterogeneous stock of humanity that we have admitted to the management of our great political enterprise. We are trying to look beneath the surface and to inquire whether there are not factors of heredity and race more fundamental than those of education and environment. We find that our democratic theories and forms of government were fashioned by but one of the many races and peoples which have come within their practical operation, and that race, the so-called Anglo Saxon, developed them out of its own island experience unhampered by inroads of alien stock. When once thus established in England and further developed in America we find that other races and peoples, accustomed to despotism and even savagery, and wholly unused to self government, have been thrust into the delicate fabric.

Like a practical people, as we pride ourselves, we have begun actually to despotize our institutions in order to control these dissident elements, although still optimistically holding