tion came about we may learn from the geography of Scotland.

The highlands of Scotland begin at the Grampian hills, and extend north and west beyond a line roughly drawn from the Clyde to the Moray Firth. The lowlands extend south from this line to the British border and include the cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. The Scotch-Irish came from that southwestern part of the lowlands, which bulges out toward Ireland north of the Solway Firth. Over these lowland countries, bounded by water and hills on three sides, successive waves of conquest and migration followed. First the primitive Caledonian or Pict was driven to the highlands, which to this day is the Celtic portion of Scotland. The Briton from the south, pressed on by Roman and then by Teuton, occupied the country. Then Irish tribes crossed over and gained a permanent hold. Then the Norwegian sailors came around from the north, and to this day there are pure Scandinavian types on the adjacent islands. Then the Saxons and Angles, driven by the Danes and Normans, gained a foothold from the east, and lastly the Danes themselves added their contingent. Here in this lowland pocket of territory no larger than a good sized American county, was compounded for five hundred years this remarkable amalgam of races.

A thousand years later, after they had become a united people and had shown their metal in the trying times of the reformation, they furnished the emigrants who displaced the Irish in the north of Ireland. James I., whom Scotland gave to England, determined to transform Catholic Ireland into Protestant England, and thereupon confiscated the lands of the native chiefs in Ulster and bestowed them upon Scottish and English lords on condition that they settle the territory with tenants from Scotland and England. This was the great settlement of 1610, and from that time to the present, Ulster has been the Protestant stronghold of Ireland. As late as 1881 the population of Ulster was 47.8 per cent Catholic, 21.7 per cent Episcopalian, and 26.8 per cent Presbyterian, an ecclesiastical division corresponding almost exactly to the racial division of Irish, Scotch, and English. During the whole of the seventeenth century-the first century of this occupa

tion-the Catholics and Episcopalians were in a much smaller proportion than these figures show for the present time, and the relative increase in Irish and Episcopalians during the eighteenth century was closely connected with the migration of the Scotch to America.

For one hundred years the Scotch multiplied in Ulster and had no dealings with the remnants of the Irish, whom they crowded into the barren hills and whom they treated like savages. They retained their purity of race, and although, when they came to America they called themselves Irish, and were known as Irish wherever they settled, yet they had no Irish blood except that which entered into their composition through the Irish migration to Scotia fifteen hundred years before.

Yet, though they despised the Irish, they could not escape the unhappy fate of Ireland. The first blow came in 1698, nearly one hundred years after their settlement. English manufacturers complained of Irish competition, and the Irish parliament, which was a tool of the British crown, passed an act totally forbidding the exportation of Irish woolens, and another act forbidding the exportation of Irish wool to any country save England. Their slowly growing linen industry was likewise discriminated against in later years. Presbyterian Ulster had been the industrial center of Ireland, and these acts nearly destroyed her industry. Next, Queen Anne's parliament adopted penal laws directed against Roman Catholics and Presbyterians, and the test act, which compelled public officials to take the communion of the Established church, deprived the entire Scotch population of self government. Nevertheless, they were compelled to pay tithes to support the Established church to which they were opposed. Lastly, the hundred year leases of the tenants began to run out, and the landlords offered renewals to the highest bidders on short leases. Here the poverty stricken Irish gained an unhappy revenge on the Scotch who had displaced them of their ancestral lands, for their low standard of living enabled them to offer rack rents far above what the Scotch could afford. No longer did religion, race pride, or gratitude have a part in holding Ulster to Protestant supremacy. The greed

of absentee landlords began to have full sway, and in the resulting struggle for livelihood, hopeless poverty was fitter to survive than ambitious thrift.

The Scotch tenants, their hearts bitter against England and aristocracy, now sought a country where they might have free land and self government. In 1718, it is stated that 4,200 of them left for America. After the famine of 1740 there were 12,000 who left annually. Altogether, in the half century just preceding the American revolution, 200,000 persons, or one third of the Protestant population of Ulster, are said to have immigrated, and the majority came to America. This was by far the largest contribution of any race to the population of America during the eighteenth century, and the injustice they suffered at the hands of England made them among the most determined and effective recruits to the armies that won our independence.

Before the Scotch-Irish moved to America the Atlantic coast line had been well occupied. Consequently, in order to obtain land for themselves, they were forced to go to the interior and to become frontiersmen. They found in Massachusetts a state church to which they must conform in order to be admitted to citizenship. But what they had left Ireland to escape they would not consent in a new country to do. The Puritans were willing that they should occupy the frontier as a buffer against the Indians, and so they took up lands in New Hampshire, Vermont, western Massachusetts, and Maine. Only a few congregations, however, settled in New Englandthe bulk of the immigrants entered by way of Philadelphia and Baltimore, and went to the interior of Pennsylvania surrounding and south of Harrisburg. They spread through the Shenandoah valley and in the foothill regions of Virginia and North and South Carolina. Gradually, they pushed farther west, across the mountains into western Pennsylvania, about Pittsburg, and into Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee. In all of these regions they fought the Indians, protected the older inhabitants from inroads, and developed those pioneer qualities which for one hundred years have characterized the winning of the west.