CHAPTER XXXV. QUEEN VICTORIA. -WAR WITH RUSSIA. - Sudden Vicissitudes in European Affairs. Differences between Turkey and Russia; the Holy Places.-Russia claims a Protectorate over the Greek Subjects of the Porte.-Aggression on the Danubian Principalities. — Intervention of France and England. — Futile Attempts at Negotiation by the great Powers. War declared against Russia by England and France.-Concessions to Neutrals. - Naval Blockade of the Russian Empire.-Invasion of the Crimea by the Allied Armies.-Battle of the Alma, and Siege of Sebastopol. Peculiarities in the Situation of the Fortress, and the Crimean Peninsula.- Capture of the Mamelon, and of the Malakoff Tower. —Subsequent Position of the belligerent Armies. Inutility of more protracted Hostilities.-Changes favourable to Peace; Death of the Emperor Nicholas. Alexander II.; his Address to the Nobility of Moscow. -Difficulties of France and Russia.-Pacific Indications of the French Emperor; his Address on closing the Paris Exhibition. Grand Naval Review.- Peace Congress. — Treaty of Paris; its important Guarantees for Ottoman Independence.—The Firmans of the Porte.- Declaration of Maritime Law in War. - Privateering abolished, and Neutral Rights extended. — International Arbitration mooted by the Congress; its probable Influence on European War. Losses of the Armies in the Crimea.. · Civilisation the sure Source of Power in War and Peace. THE remarkable vicissitudes of the preceding septennial period were rapid in transition, as the changeful views of a landscape on a summer's day from a fleeting cloud over the celestial luminary. The younger branch of the Bourbons unexpectedly disappeared, and, after the brief interlude of an experimental republic, was replaced by the empire and the dynasty of Napoleon. The expulsion of the Bourbons was immediately followed by that of other old royalties of the continent; but they were as suddenly reinstated in power by the regular armies commanded by Windischgrätz, Wrangel, and Radetsky. The quietude of monarchical despotism was thus restored in Germany and Italy, and all the attempts made at representative governments defeated. England continued unmoved amid these revolutions, but it, too, was identified with extraordinary events, favourable, however, rather than adverse to progress, by the discovery of the gold fields in her Colonies, the unexpected impulse given to the prosperity of Ireland, and the splendid triumphs of her great international Exhibition. But the last was speedily followed by a reverse manifestation wholly unexpected. No one foresaw that the friendly intercourse established among nations, and exemplified in the World's Fair, was destined soon after to be seriously interrupted. Cordial relations had apparently been cemented for a lengthened term by reciprocal hospitalities, which held out the prospect of a long interchange of peaceful benefits. All the great states of Europe had zealously concurred in the international gathering, and freely lent their aid to give éclat to the Exhibition. The emperor of Russia was conspicuous, and contributed beautiful specimens of malachite and of the rich sables of his empire. Austria shone in magnificent domestic furniture and ornamentation. A decree of the Federal Diet, April 12. 1855, required the governments of Germany to bring their state constitutions into harmony with the monarchical principle. In obedience to this decree the King of Hanover annulled the constitution given in 1848, and also the provincial electoral law of 1850, thereby diminishing popular rights to the measure of the constitution of the late King Ernest. Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Würtemberg, and other German states, together with the vacillating Grand Duke of Tuscany, in like manner revoked the representative constitutions they had granted in the moment of defeat or apprehension. DISPUTE ABOUT THE HOLY PLACES. 761 France and England, it is needless to observe, were abundant in articles of utility, elegance, and mechanical ingenuity. All did their best, according to the genius, taste, and natural capabilities of the several communities. But these pledges of future amity and goodwill seem to have been forgotten or compromised by the rise of misunderstandings, which had disastrous issues. What is most observable is, that the rupture of the general peace appears to have been not less adverse to the interests than the inclinations of the sovereigns. The pride of none of them had been hurt; no personal feud or dislike subsisted between them; like the disputes of private persons, the disagreement began in the veriest and most irrelevant trifle, which, through arrogance and self-will, was suffered to ripen into open hostilities. The little cloud first rose over the Holy Places. France had obtained from the Porte concessions in favour of the Latin Church, at Jerusalem; and Russia sought similar indulgences in favour of the Greek Church at the same place. In the settlement of the conflicting claims of the two churches the Sultan appears to have been, in the estimate of the Czar, not so liberal or complaisant in his dealings with him as with the Emperor Napoleon. The Porte tendered amends for this apparent slight, and which seem to have been accepted; but not forgotten. Prince Menzikoff was despatched to Constantinople, and the object of his mission only partly disclosed; it was said to refer exclusively to the Jerusalem churches, but was found to involve questions far more important, and which the prince studiously concealed. The demands that Russia now made extended to all the Greek churches of Turkey, to which belonged several millions of its population, and the substitution of her own authority in place of that of the Porte in matters pertaining to ecclesiastical govern ment. These demands were enforced with a threat of Russian coercion if not implicitly, and without the alteration of a word, complied with in the space of a week.* To such insulting dictation submission, with national honour, was impossible. Compliance with Prince Menzikoff's peremptory note would have manifestly been subversive of the independence of Turkey, and made the Sultan only a vassal-partner with the Czar in the government of his dominions. Certain privileges had been conceded by the Porte to its Christian subjects, and were guaranteed by treaty with Russia; but what the emperor now aspired to was to be pope in Turkey as well as in his own territory, and to exercise the same indisputable authority in the East that the see of Rome in the Dark Ages exercised in western Europe. The Porte offered fresh securities for the religious privileges and immunities of Christians; but, this tender being made in concert with the great powers of Europe, not directly and specially with Russia, it was rejected.f Following up the menace of self-redress, the Russian army crossed the boundary line of the Pruth, July 2nd, and in the same month took military possession of the Moldo-Wallachian provinces as a "material guarantee' of Ottoman humiliation. This open violation of treaties, and defiance of the usages of civilised states, was met by the counter approach of the combined fleets of England and France towards the Dardanelles. As the only alternative against unprovoked aggression, the Porte, September 27., declared war against Russia, and the allied fleets advanced to Constantinople. November *Note of Prince Menzikoff, May 3. 1853. † Declaration of War by England, "Gazette," March 28. 1854. INTERVENTION OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 763 30th, the Russian admiral Nachimoff surprised and destroyed the Turkish ships of war lying in the roads of Sinope. Pending these occurrences, concerted efforts continued to be made by England, France, Austria, and Prussia for the re-establishment of peace, and the maintenance of the Ottoman empire as an essential element of the balance of power. These endeavours failed; in one instance from the Czar being dissentient, and in another from the adverse construction put by the Porte on a joint note of the four great powers, and agreed to by the emperor Nicholas. It was only a phrase of the Vienna note of December 3rd that the Porte demurred to, upon the ground of its being open to the inference that the concessions made in favour of its Christian subjects might be construed to have emanated from Russia, rather than the free grace of the Sublime Porte. The crisis had now arrived. Pacific negotiations had been exhausted in futile efforts, before and after the commencement of hostilities between Russia and Turkey, to reconcile their differences. The Czar was in the wrong; and France and England resolved to take part against the aggressor, by making a peremptory demand for the evacuation of the Danubian Principalities, refusal by Russia to be considered a declaration of war.* Austria and Prussia concurred in the justice of this summons; but, though more nearly concerned than the two Western Powers in checking Russian aggrandisement, they declined to commit themselves to hostilities with the autocrat of the North in the event of non-obedience. The haughty Czar not only refused obedience, but exhibited a contemptuous arrogance. After perusing Lord Clarendon's letter con Earl of Clarendon's Note to Count Nesselrode, February 27. 1854. |
