tions will be sent, except those from the army where head-quarters are at the date of this address.

"U. S. GRANT, Lieut.-Gen. U. S. A.”

Thus Ulysses S. Grant became the successor of General Scott in the title of Lieutenant-General, and also Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the United States.

The XXXIXth Congress, by Act of the 25th of July, 1866, revived the grade of General of the Army of the nited States, thus establishing for the first time in America since the days of Washington, the grade of General of the Army. By this law the General is to be appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate, and is to be selected from among the officers in the military service of the United States most distinguished for courage, skill and ability. The salary of the General is $400 per month. The Act provides that

"Whenever any General shall have been appointed and commissioned under the provisions of this Act, if thereafter the office shall become vacant, this act shall thereupon expire and remain no longer in force."

So soon as the office becomes vacant by the resignation of General Grant, or from any other cause, then the grade of General ceases, and must, if created again, be by Act of Congress.

Immediately on the passage of the Act of July 25th, 1866, alluded to, President Johnson nominated for the office of General, Lieutenant-General Ulysses S. Grant. He also nominated Major-General William T. Sherman to fill the office of Lieutenant-General, made vacant by Grant's nomination to the office of General. Both nominations were confirmed by the Senate toward the close of the 1st Session of the XXXIXth Congress in 1866.

The XXXIXth Congress, on March 2d, 1867, passed an Act by which the General of the Army can be removed only at his own request, or by the President, with the consent of the Senate; also providing that all orders and instructions, relating to military operations, should pass through the hands of the General. The bill reads as follows:

"The head-quarters of the General of the Army shall be at Washington, and all orders and instructions relating to military operations issued by the President or Secretary of War, shall be issued through the General of the Army, and in case of his inability, through the next in rank. The General of the Army shall not be removed, suspended, or relieved from command, or assigned to duty elsewhere than at said head-quarters, except at his own request, without the previous approval of the Senate; and any orders or instructions relating to military operations issued contrary to the requirements of this section, shall be null and void; and any officer who shall issue orders or instructions contrary to the provisions of this section, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor in office; and any officer of the army who shall transmit, convey, or obey any orders or instructions so issued contrary to the provisions of this section, knowing that such orders were so issued, shall be liable to imprisonment for not less than two nor more than twenty years, upon conviction thereof, in any Court of competent jurisdiction."

President Johnson protested against this Act, which he said in his message, "in certain cases virtually deprives the President of his constitutional functions as Commander-in-Chief of the Army;" yet he signed the

bill.

CHAPTER XXXV.

EXISTING REPUBLICS OF THE WORLD IN 1869.

Andora. This is the oldest Republic now in existence. It is situated among the Pyrennees, between France and Spain. It was founded in the year 790, A.D., and lies in a beautiful valley inclosed on all sides by the mountains Maladetta and the Moncal. It has an area of 190 square miles, and a population of about 8,000. The laws are made by twenty-four Consuls elected by the whole people. Recent writers fail to mention this miniature Republic, but it still has an existence.

Bremen. This is a free city of Germany. Thirtyfive members compose the Senate; there is also an assembly called Burgercouvent; these jointly discharge the legislative functions. The Senate is presided over by a Burgomaster; two are elected-one for four years, and one for six years. It comprises an area of 112 square miles, and contained a population of 104,091 in December, 1867.

Frankfort.-A free city of Germany, with an area of 43 square miles; the population in 1864 was 91,180. Its Government is Republican, vested in a Senate and Legislative Assembly. The Senate consists of four syndics, and twenty-one members elected for life. Fifty-seven members compose the Assembly, elected by the burghers, also twenty permanent representatives of the burghers, chosen by the Common

Council of the city, and eleven members chosen by the rural communities. In 1866, Frankfort was annexed to Prussia, but it still retains its freedom.

Hamburg. This is a free city of Germany; its area 135 square miles; population in 1866, 298,324. A new Constitution was adopted in 1861, by which the legislative powers were vested in the Senate and the Burgerschaft. Eighteen members compose the Senate, of whom nine must be lawyers; and of the other nine, seven at least must be merchants. Senators are elected for life, and cannot tender a resignation until they have served at least six years. The Senate elects annually, from its own members, a first and second Burgomaster. The Burgerschaft consists of 192 members, 84 of whom are chosen by district elections; the others are chosen by different corporations.

Lubec-Is a free city of Germany. It adopted a new Constitution, December 29th, 1851. The executive power is vested in the Senate, which consists of fourteen members, and the legislative authority in the Burgerschaft, which consists of 120 members, chosen by the citizens. Lubec is the seat of the Supreme Court of Appeals for the four free cities of Germany.

Switzerland-Is a Federal Republic of Europe. Its present Constitution was adopted September 12th, 1848. The Republic is divided into 22 Cantons. The legislative power is vested in a Federal Assembly, which consists of two chambers; a Standerath or Council composed of two members from each of the Cantons, and a Nationalrath, consisting of 128 members, elected by the people. Elections are held once in three years, and every male inhabitant 21 years of age is entitled to vote. The area of the Republic is 15,933 square miles; and its total population in 1860 was 2,510,494.

San Marino. This little Republic is situated in the Papal territory, and occupies an area of about twentyone square miles, high up in the mountain range near the shore of the Adriatic. Its population in 1858 was 8,000. The origin of this Republic dates back to the fifth century, since which time it has maintained its Republican character. Once (in 1739) the Pope seized it, but the Emperor of Germany caused him to restore it to freedom. The great conqueror Napoleon, when he overrun Italy, spared this miniature Republic. The Government is conducted by a Council of 300 ancients, and a Senate of twenty patricians, twenty burgesses, and twenty peasants. The chief executive officer is styled Gonfalonier, and is elected every three months.

Liberia. This Republic was founded by the American Colonization Society, which was formed at Washington City, D. C., on the night of the 20th of December, 1816. On the 15th of December, 1821, Commodore Robert F. Stockton, U. S. N., and Dr. Eli Ayres, acting as agents of this Society, purchased Cape Mesurado, upon which is now located Monrovia, the capital of Liberia. Subsequently six hundred miles of the west coast of Africa, with an average depth interiorwards of twenty miles, was added; its area is 23,859 square miles, and the population in 1867 was 17,000 civilized, and 700,000 uncivilized negroes. The legislative powers are vested in a Senate and House of Representatives. Senators are

elected for four years; members of the House for two years. A President and Vice-President of the Republic are elected for two years. The President must be thirty-five years of age, and have property of the value of $600; the Vice-President must have the same qualifications. The whole government of the Repub