the people, like Jefferson, regard a constitution as of little higher authority than an act of the Legislature.

Every political campaign in which great issues are involved has led to some change in State constitutions, and not infrequently to new ones. This was conspicuous between 1830 and 1840, when franchise reforms that had been agitated for a generation were embodied in constitutional revision; again, from 1860 to 1870, when reforms in the franchise and in the basis of representation were carried into every constitution in the country; and again from 1889 to 1895, when economic reforms affecting labor, transportation, capital, and the franchise, were embodied in the constitutions of the Northwestern States. Other changes have during the century been made affecting the powers of the Legislature and of Governors, the manner of choosing judges, the organization of the administrative department, finance, education, and local government.

As has been said of the state, so may it be said of all these changes-they were once a private thought. It is the purpose of a history of democracy to make the state a private thought again.

CHAPTER II

THE FORM OF DEMOCRACY IN THE

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

In the closing years of the seventeenth century North America gave little promise of becoming a continent of commonwealths.* Along the Atlantic coast extended the English colonies, inhabited

* The principal authorities for this chapter are the State constitutions and laws, 1775-1800, and the proceedings of conventions during this period:

Maryland. Proceedings of the Conventions of the Province of Maryland, held at the City of Annapolis in 1774, 1775, and 1776. Baltimore: James Lucas & E. K. Deaver. Annapolis: Jonas Green, 1836, 8vo, 378 pp.

Massachusetts. Journal of the Convention for Framing a Constitution of Government for the State of Massachusetts Bay, from the Commencement of their First Session, September 1, 1779, to the Close of their Last Session, June 16, 1780, Including a List of the Members. With an Appendix-containing: 1. The Resolve for Ascertaining the Sense of the People on the Subject of a New Constitution. 2. The Form of Government Originally Reported by the General Committee of the Convention. 3. The Address to the People. 4. The Constitution as finally Agreed upon by the Convention, and Ratified by the People, with the Amendments since Adopted. 5. The Rejected Constitution of 1778. Published by Order of the Legislature. Boston: Dutton & Wentworth, Printers to the State, 1832, 8vo, 264 pp.

New Hampshire.—Journal of Colonial Congress, December 21, 1775, to January 5, 1776. Historical Magazine, October, 1868, pp. 145-154. Collections of the New Hampshire Historical Society, Vol. iv. State Papers of New Hampshire, Edited by Albert Still

by about three hundred thousand people, AngloSaxon stock predominating-a smaller population than may now be found in some Congressional districts. England claimed territory to the South Sea,

man Batchellor, Vols. xx., xxi., xxii. Provincial Papers of New Hampshire, Vols. vii., viii. Journal of the Convention which Assembled in Concord to Revise the Constitution of New Hampshire, 1791-1792. Edited by Nathaniel Bouton, D.D. Concord: Edward A. Jenks, State Printer, 1876, 8vo, 198 pp.

New Jersey. Extracts from the Journal of Proceedings of the Provincial Congress of New Jersey, held at Trenton in the months of May, June, and August, 1775. Published by Order. Burlington: Printed and Sold by Isaac Collins, MDCCLXXV., Woodbury, N. J. Reprinted by Order. Joseph Sailer, Printer, 1835, 8vo, 241 pp. Journal of the Votes and Proceedings of the Convention of New Jersey, Begun at Burlington, the tenth of June, 1776, and thence continued by Adjournment at Trenton and New Brunswick to the twenty-first of August, following. To which is annexed Sundry Ordinances, and the Constitution. Published by Order. Burlington: Printed and Sold by Isaac Collins, MDCCLXXVI. Trenton: Reprinted by Order. Joseph Justice, Printer, 1831, 8vo, 100 pp. Eumenes, being a Collection of Papers, written for the Purpose of Exhibiting some of the more prominent Errors and Omissions of the Constitution of New Jersey, as Established on the Second day of July, one thousand seven hundred and seventy-six; and to prove the necessity of Calling a Convention for Revision and Amendment. Trenton: Printed by G. Craft, 1799, 8vo, 149 pp.

New York.-Journals of the Provincial Congress, Provincial Convention, Committee of Safety, and Council of Safety of the State of New York, 1775, 1776, 1777. Albany: Printed by Thurlow Weed, Printer to the State, 1842, Vol. i., Large Folio, L196 pp. See also some account of the making of the New York Constitution of 1777 in pp. 691-696 of Reports of the Proceedings and Debates of the Convention of 1821, Assembled for the Purpose of Amending the Constitution of the State of New York: Containing all the official Documents Relating to the Subject, and other valuable matter, by Nathaniel H. Carter and William L. Stone, Reporters; and Marcus T. C. Gould, Stenographer. Albany: Printed and published by E. & E. Hosford, 1821, 8vo, 703 pp.

Contending Forces for Supremacy

but was not in possession beyond the Alleghanies. From these mountains westward farther than any white man had explored, was New France, comprising the vast region drained by the rivers St. Law

North Carolina.-The Journal of the Proceedings of the Provincial Congress of North Carolina, held at Halifax, the twelfth day of November, 1776, together with the Declaration of Rights, Constitution, and Ordinances of Congress. Newbern: Printed by James Davis, 1777, Small 4to, 84 pp. (Sabin, 394, c. 55.632).

Pennsylvania.-The Proceedings Relative to Calling the Conventions of 1776 and 1790, the Minutes of the Convention that formed the Present Constitution of Pennsylvania, together with the Charter to William Penn, the Constitutions of 1776 and 1790, and a View of the Proceedings of the Convention of 1776, and the Council of Censors. Harrisburg: Printed by John S. Wrestling, Market Street, 1825, 8vo, 384 + iv. pp. Minutes of the Convention of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania which commenced at Philadelphia, on Tuesday the twenty-fourth Day of November, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine, for the Purpose of Reviewing, and if they see occasion, Altering and Amending the Constitution of this State. Philadelphia: Printed by Zachariah Poulson, Jr., in Fourth Street, between Market Street and Arch Street. MDCCLXXXIX., folio, First Session, 147 pp.; Second Session, 147-222. Minutes of the Grand Committee of the Same, folio, 107 pp.

Tennessee. Journal of the Proceedings of a Convention Begun and Held at Knoxville, January 11, 1796. Knoxville: Printed by George Roulstone, 1796. Nashville: Reprinted by McKennie & Brown, True Whig Office, 1852, 8vo, 32 pp.

Vermont.-Vermont State Papers, being a Collection of Records and Documents connected with the Assumption and Establishment of Government by the People of Vermont, together with the Journal of the Council of Safety, the first Constitution, the early Journals of the General Assembly, and the Laws from the year 1779 to 1786 inclusive. To which are added the Proceedings of the First and Second Councils of Censors. Compiled and published by William Slade, Jr., Secretary of State. Middleburg: J. W. Copeland, Printer, 1823, 8vo, 567 pp. Collections of the Vermont Historical Society, Vol. i. Montpelier: Printed for the Society, 1870, 508 pp. Vol. ii., Id., 1871, 530 pp. In Vol. i.,

rence and Mississippi and their tributaries. Farther southward and westward lay New Spain, greater in area than New France. The English feared two foes-absolutism and the papacy, and were on the defensive. The struggle which for centuries had raged in the Old World between absolutism and democracy broke out in the New at the close of the seventeenth century. Antagonistic systems of government were contesting for the possession of America. In the English colonies were the germs of representative government and free commonwealths. The fate of half the globe depended on what victories might be won in the Ohio Valley. In decisive results, Wolf's victory on the Heights of Abraham was to take rank with Marathon and Cannæ. Probably, the pioneers who, during the long campaign from Braddock's defeat to Yorktown, won America for liberty

the Conventions of 1776-1777. In Vol. ii., Vermont as a Sovereign and Independent State.

Virginia. The Proceedings of the Convention of Delegates for the Counties and Corporations in the Colony of Virginia, held at Richmond Town, in the County of Henrico, on the 20th of March, 1775. Reprinted by a Resolution of the House of Delegates, of the 24th February, 1816. Richmond: Richie, Trueheart & Du-Val, Printers, 1816, folio, 54 pp. The Proceedings of the Same on Friday, the 1st of December, 1775, and afterwards by Adjournment in the City of Williamsburg, Id. and Ib., folio, 116 pp. The Proceedings of the Same in Williamsburg, on Monday, the 6th of May, 1776, Id. and Ib., folio, 86 pp. Ordinances Passed at a General Convention of Delegates and Representatives from the several Counties and Corporations of Virginia, held at the Capitol in the City of Williamsburg, on Monday, the 6th of May, Anno Dom., 1776. Reprinted by a Resolution of the House of Delegates, of the 24th February, 1816. Richmond, supra, folio, 19 pp.