not fewer than four persons.

The subjects of investigation are arranged in the following order:-1. Párájiká, four in number, referring to crimes that are to be punished by permanent exclusion from the priesthood. 2. Sanghádisésá, thirteen in number, that require suspension and penance, but not permanent exclusion. 3. Aniyatá-dhammá, two in number, that involve exclusion, suspension, or penance, according to circumstances. 4. Nissagiyápáchittiyá-dhammá, thirty in number, requiring forfeiture of such articles as the priests are permitted to possess. 5. Páchittiyadhammá, ninety-two in number, requiring confession and absolution. 6. Pátidésani-dhammá, four in number, involving reprimand. 7. Sékhiya-dhammá, seventy-five in number, containing various prohibitions, and inculcating certain observances and proprieties. 8. Adhikarana-samatá-dhammá, seven in number, the rules to be observed in conducting judicial investigations relative to the conduct of the priests.*

The four crimes that involve permanent exclusion from the priesthood are sexual intercourse, theft, murder, and a false profession of the attainment of rahatship; but as the whole of the rules contained in the Pátimokkhan appear in thefollowing chapters, under the heads to which they respectively belong, it will not be necessary to insert them in the order in which they are recited in the bi-monthly convention of ecclesiastics. The various rules and obligations of the priest have been divided into an almost numberless array of classes; but their tedious minuteness must ever tend to deter any one from prosecuting their examination, who does not trust in the three gems as an object of religious confidence.

There is, however, one division, called the Teles-dhútanga, from teles, thirteen, dhúta, destroyed, and anga, ordinance, meaning the thirteen ordinances by which the cleaving to existence is destroyed, too important to be omitted. These ordinances enjoin the following observances on the part of the priest by whom they are kept. 1. To reject all garments but those of the meanest description. 2. To possess only three garments. 3. To eat no food but that which has been received under certain restrictions. 4. To call at all

houses alike when carrying the alms-bowl. 5. To remain on one seat, when eating, until the meal be finished. 6. To eat only from

* Gogerly's Essay on the Laws of the Priesthood, Ceylon Friend, 1839. Nearly the whole of my information relative to the contents of the Patimokkhan has been derived from this source.

might be a rightful heir to the family possessions. At that time there appears to have been no law prohibiting such a course; but when Sudinna yielded to the solicitations by which he was assailed, and was afterwards led, from a conviction that he had done wrong, to declare to his fellow priests what had taken place, Budha, after reproving him for his conduct, enacted the following law, and declared that it was universally binding upon those who would renounce the world. "Yo pana bhikkhu méthunan dhamman patiséweyya párájikó hóti asanwáso: What priest soever shall have intercourse with a woman is overcome and excluded." Under the plea that intercourse with women alone was prohibited by this law, another priest acted improperly in a forest frequented by monkeys, so that it became necessary to introduce the clause "antamaso tiratchánagatáyapi: Even with an animal." At a subsequent period, some priests of Wajji, without a formal renunciation of asceticism, were guilty of improper conduct. Though they then laid aside their robes, yet, as they met with many afflictions in the world, such as the loss of relatives, they requested readmission to the priesthood. This request was not granted; but a clause was added to the form of prohibition, by which any priest who was unable to maintain a state of continence might receive permission to become a laic, without any bar to his readmission to the priesthood at a future period, if he so willed it. The entire prohibition was then to this effect: "Any bhikkhu who has engaged to live according to the laws given to the priesthood, if he shall, without having made confession of his weakness and become a laic, hold intercourse with a female of what kind soever, is overcome and excluded."*

Of the five sections into which the Winaya Pitaka is divided, the first and second, Párájiká and Páchiti, contain a code of ordinances relative to priestly crimes and misdemeanors; the third and fourth, Maha Waga and Chula Waga, miscellaneous rules and regulations, relative to ordination, the ceremony called wass, &c.; and the fifth, Pariwánapáta, contains a recapitulation of the preceding books.

The precepts and prohibitions contained in the Párájiká and Páchiti, 227 in number, are collected together, apart from the details and explanations by which they are accompanied, in a work called Pátimokkhan, or in Singhalese, Prátimóksha, which is to be recited twice every month in an assembly of priests consisting of

* Gogerly's Essay on Budhism, Journ. Ceylon Branch Royal As. Soc.

not fewer than four persons.

The subjects of investigation are arranged in the following order:—1. Párájiká, four in number, referring to crimes that are to be punished by permanent exclusion from the priesthood. 2. Sanghádisésá, thirteen in number, that require suspension and penance, but not permanent exclusion. 3. Aniyatá-dhammá, two in number, that involve exclusion, suspension, or penance, according to circumstances. 4. Nissagiyápáchittiyá-dhammá, thirty in number, requiring forfeiture of such articles as the priests are permitted to possess. 5. Páchittiyádhammá, ninety-two in number, requiring confession and absolution. 6. Pátidésani-dhammá, four in number, involving reprimand. 7. Sékhiya-dhammá, seventy-five in number, containing various prohibitions, and inculcating certain observances and proprieties. 8. Adhikarana-samatá-dhammá, seven in number, the rules to be observed in conducting judicial investigations relative to the conduct of the priests.*

The four crimes that involve permanent exclusion from the priesthood are sexual intercourse, theft, murder, and a false profession of the attainment of rahatship; but as the whole of the rules contained in the Pátimokkhan appear in thefollowing chapters, under the heads to which they respectively belong, it will not be necessary to insert them in the order in which they are recited in the bi-monthly convention of ecclesiastics. The various rules and obligations of the priest have been divided into an almost numberless array of classes; but their tedious minuteness must ever tend to deter any one from prosecuting their examination, who does not trust in the three gems as an object of religious confidence.

There is, however, one division, called the Teles-dhútanga, from teles, thirteen, dhúta, destroyed, and anga, ordinance, meaning the thirteen ordinances by which the cleaving to existence is destroyed, too important to be omitted. These ordinances enjoin the following observances on the part of the priest by whom they are kept. 1. To reject all garments but those of the meanest description. 2. To possess only three garments. 3. To eat no food but that which has been received under certain restrictions. 4. To call at all houses alike when carrying the alms-bowl. 5. To remain on one seat, when eating, until the meal be finished.

6. To eat only from

*Gogerly's Essay on the Laws of the Priesthood, Ceylon Friend, 1839. Nearly the whole of my information relative to the contents of the Patimokkhan has been derived from this source.

one vessel.

8. To 10. To 12. To take

7. To cease eating when certain things occur. reside in the forest. 9. To reside at the foot of a tree. reside in an open space. 11. To reside in a cemetery. any seat that may be provided. 13. To refrain from lying down under any circumstance whatever. The three principal observances are the 4th, 5th, and 10th; and he who observes these three may be said to practise the whole series. The entire number may be kept by priests, eight by priestesses, twelve by novices, seven by female novices, and two by the lay devotees called upasakas, whether male or female. Thus there are in all forty-two divisions. The five observances that the priestesses are forbidden to keep are the 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, and 11th; the last three cannot be observed by them under any circumstances, as it would be highly improper for the priestess to remain in a solitary place. The novice may keep all except the 2nd. The lay devotee can keep only the 5th and 6th.*

Nearly the whole of these observances are included in the code that is known among the Chinese by the name of Chi eul theou tho king, or The Sacred Book of the Twelve Observances, quoted in the San tsang fă sou, lib. xliv. p. 10. Cf. Vocabulaire Pentaglotte, sect. xlv.f

III. NAMES AND TITLES.

The priests of Budha have received various names, of which the following are the principal:-1. Sráwakas, from the root sru, to hear, answering to the aкovorikou of the Greeks. 2. Sarmanas, from srama, the performance of asceticism, answering to the okraι, exercisers, of the ancient church. By the Chinese the word is written Cha men and Sang men, and is said by Klaproth to mean "celui qui restreint ses pensées, ou celui qui s'efforce et se restreint." It is probable that the epithet Samanean, as applied to the religious system of Tartary, is derived from the same word. It is to the priests of Budha that Strabo (lib. xv. cap. i.) refers,

* Milanda Prasna: Wisudhi Margga Sanné.

+ Foě Kouě Ki, ou Relation des Royaumes Bouddhiques: Voyage dans la Tartarie, dans l'Afghanistan et dans l'Inde, exécuté a la fin du ive Siècle, par Chy fă hian. Traduit du Chinois et commenté par M. Abel Remusat. Ouvrage posthume, revu, complété, et augmenté d'éclaircissements nouveaux, par MM. Klaproth et Landresse: Paris, 1836.

when he speaks of the Garmanas of India. By Clemens Alexandrinus (Stromat. lib. i.) they are called Sarmanas, though he afterwards mentions the followers of Butta (Budha) as belonging to a separate community. In other works of the fathers they are called Semnoi. Porphyrius (De Abst. lib. iv.) calls them Samanaeani. 3. Thérós, or elders, answering to the p of the Old Testament and the peoẞurepo of the New. 4. Bhikshus, or in Pali, bhikkhu, from bhiksha, to beg, literally a mendicant. The bhikshu is said to be so called "because of the fear he manifests of the repetition of existence; because he goes to seek his food as a mendicant; because he is arrayed in shreds and rags; and because he avoids the practice of whatever is evil." The eastern etymologists, with their usual ingenuity, find all these ideas in the root of the word, either by addition, elision, or transposition. When Budha addressed the priests, it was usually by this appellation. It is said by M. Abel Remusat that the Chinese word Pi khieou "is the equivalent of the Sanskrit bhikchou, mendiant." They are called in Tibetan, dGe slong. "When the four rivers fall into the sea they no longer retain the name of river : when men of the four castes become Samaneans, they receive the common name of sons of Sákya (synonymous with bhikchou). The Tsun ching king calls them Pi thsiu (the name of a shrub that grows upon the Himalayas)." †

When any

In Ceylon, the novices, as well as the priests who have not received ordination, are called ganinnansés, from gana, an assemblage or association; and the superior priests are called térunnánsés, from the Pali théro, an elder. Their collective name is mahunánsé, literally, the great one. In the books they are represented as being addressed by the name of áyusmat, ancient, venerable. one embraced the priesthood he was said to be prawarjika, from wraja, to abandon, one who has abandoned the world, answering to a name of the ancient monks, ȧzoračaμevoi, apotactates, renouncers. In Nepaul the priests are called bandaya (whence also the Chinese bonze), which, in Sanskrit signifies a person entitled to reverence, from the word bandana. They are there divided into

* In like manner, Arab. Sheikh, an old man, and then "chief of a tribe;" also Ital. Signor, Fr. Seigneur, Span. Señor, Engl. Sir, all of which come from the Lat. Senior, elder; also, Germ. Graf. count, is pp. i. q. graw, krawo, grey-headed. Gesenius, sub voce.

+ Relation des Royaumes Bouddhiques, p. 60, quoted from San tsang fă sou, liv. xxii. p. 9.