considered as absolutely irrevocable, but is subject to be judged on the general principle of utility, like all other positive laws and institutions; and if found inapplicable, injurious, and oppressive to other classes of citizens, such laws must be amended or abolished. And as the state ought never to persist in old errors at the expense of its citizens, so, on the other hand, those who are to lose the privilege of exemption from taxes should be indemnified for it according to equitable principles. TAY, a river of Scotland, which rises in the west part of Perthshire, passes through Loch Tay, and runs into the German sea, forming a large bay at its mouth, called the Frith of Tay. It is navigable for vessels of five hundred tons to Newburgh, in Fife, and for vessels of considerable size as far as Perth. The salmon fishery on the Tay is extensive. TAYLOR, John, usually called the water poet, from his being a waterman, was born in Gloucester, about 1580. He was taken young to London, and apprenticed to a waterman. He was at the taking of Cadiz, under the earl of Essex, in 1596, and afterwards visited Germany and Scotland. At home he was many years collector for the lieutenant of the Tower of London, of his fees of the wines from all the ships which brought them up the Thames. When the civil wars broke out, he retired to Oxford, where he kept a common victualling house, and wrote pasquinades upon the Roundheads. He afterwards kept a public house at Westminster. He died in 1654, aged seventyfour. His works are published under the title of “All the Works of John Taylor, the Water Poet, being Sixty and Three in Nmuber, collected into One Volume by the Author, with sundry new Additions, corrected, revised, and newly imprinted" (1630, folio). These pieces are not destitute of natural humor, and of the jingling wit which prevailed so much during the reign of James I.

TAYLOR, Jeremy, an eminent divine and prelate of the Irish church, was born in the year 1613, at Cambridge, where his father was a barber. He was educated at Perse's free school in his native place, and entered, in 1626, a sizar in Caius college, where he continued until he had graduated master of arts. Entering into orders, he occasionally lectured for a friend at St. Paul's cathedral, where he attracted the attention of archbishop Laud, who procured him a fellowship of All Souls college, Oxford, and, in 1640, obtained for him the rectory of Uppingham.

In 1642, he was created doctor of divinity at Oxford, at which time he was chaplain in ordinary to Charles I, whom he attended in some of his campaigns, and aided by several writings in defence of the church of England. After the parliament proved victorious, his living being sequestrated, he retired into Wales, where he was kindly received by the earl of Carbery, under whose protection he was allowed to exercise his ministry, and keep a school. In this obscure situation he wrote those copious and fervent discourses, whose fertility of composition, eloquence of expression, and comprehensiveness of thought, have rendered him one of the first writers in the English language. The death of three sons within a short period, rendered a change of place necessary for the restoration of his tranquillity, and he removed to London, and officiated, not without danger, to private congregations of royalists. At length he accepted an invitation from lord Conway to reside at his seat in Ireland, where he remained until the restoration, when he was elevated to the Irish see of Down and Connor, with the administration of that of Dromore. He was also made a privy counsellor for Ireland, and chosen vice-chancellor of the university of Dublin. He conducted himself, on his advancement, with all the attention to his duties, public and private, which had ever distinguished him in humble situations. Piety, humility and charity were his leading characteristics; and, on his death, at Lisburne, Aug. 13, 1667, he left but very moderate fortunes to his three daughters. Taylor possessed the advantages of a comely person and a melodious voice, which were further set off by the most urbane manners and agreeable conversation. His works have been printed in four, and also in six volumes folio, a great part of which consists in sermons and devotional pieces. There are likewise several treatises, one of the most remarkable of which is entitled, A Discourse of the Liberty of Prophesying (Preaching), (4to., 1647), which pleads eloquently and strenuously for liberty of conscience. Of the other writings of this prelate, the most generally known are his Golden Grove, or Manual of daily Prayers; his treatises on Holy Living and Dying; and his Ductor Dubitantium, or Rule of Conscience. Of these the two former are peculiarly admired for fervor of devotional feeling, beauty of imagery, and illustrative and copious impressiveness of eloquence. A new edition of his works,

with a life, by the late bishop Heber, was published in 1822 (15 volumes).

TAYLOR, John, LL. D., a distinguished scholar and critic, the son of a barber of Shrewsbury, received the rudiments of education at the grammar-school of his native town, and was entered of St. John's college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1730. In 1732, he was appointed librarian of the university, which office he soon after quitted for that of registrar. He published an edition of Lysias in 1739, and in 1742 became a member of doctors' commons. Two years afterwards he was made chancellor of Lincoln; and in 1751, entering into orders, was presented to the living of Lawford, in Essex. He published, in 1755, Elements of Civil Law (4to., reprinted in 1769). He died in 1766, after having just completed an edition of Demosthenes, in two vols., 8vo. Besides the works already mentioned, he was author of an Explanation of the Marmor Sandvicense, and an edition of Two Orations of Demosthenes and Lycurgus.

TAYLOR, Thomas, well known by the title of the Platonist, was born in London, of obscure parents, in 1758, and, at the age of nine years, was placed at St. Paul's school, it being intended to educate him as a dissenting minister. Disgusted, however, with the manner in which the dead languages are taught, he prevailed on his father to relinquish this plan. He was then only twelve years old; yet he became deeply enamored of a Miss Morton, who afterwards gave him her hand. While at home, Ward's Young Mathematician's Guide inspired him with a love of mathematics, and, though his father was adverse to the study, the youth soon contrived to become a proficient in his favorite science. This he accomplished by sacrificing to it a part of the hours of rest; and that he might procure a light without being discovered, he concealed a tinderbox under his pillow. When he was fifteen, he was placed under an uncle, at Sheerness, who was an officer of the dock-yard—a situation irksome in its nature, and rendered more so by the tyranny of his uncle. After enduring it for three years, he became pupil to a dissenting preacher, with the view of entering into the church. At this period he also renewed his acquaintance with Miss Morton, to whom he was secretly married. Their secret was, however, betrayed, and they were thrown upon the world, with scarcely sufficient resources to prevent them from starving. At length Mr. Tay

159

lor obtained employment as usher to a school at Paddington, which, as it kept him absent from his wife, he exchanged for that of a clerk in a banking-house, in the city. Still his pecuniary means were so limited, that in the course of the day he could not obtain a proper quantity of food, and he often fell senseless on the floor when he reached his home. At length, his circumstances were somewhat amended. His studies were still continued with unabated arder, and, as the banking-house absorbed the whole of his days, he was obliged to devote to them several hours of the night. Having made himself master of the works of Aristotle, he passed on to those of Plato, and the commentators on Plato's philosophical writings. After he had been nearly six years in the banking-house, the failure of his health, and the nature of his occupation, determined him to procure some more eligible mode of living. An attempt to construct a perpetual lamp made him advantageously known to several eminent persons, who enabled him to emancipate himself from the drudgery of the bankinghouse. The munificence of a private individual, Mr. William Meredith, now put it in his power to publish a translation of the works of Plato, and the Platonic commentators. Mr. Taylor also labored for the booksellers; but the remuneration which he received from them was inadequate to his toil. For his translation of Pausanias he was paid only sixty pounds! If we contemplate the numerous obstacles which have opposed his progress, it is impossible not to admire the steady perseverance with which he has pursued his course; and it is little to the credit of England, that a man of such powers of mind, and such extensive learning, should so long have been left to struggle through the world with no other patronage than that of a few private individuals. Among his translations from the Greek are Plotinus on the Beautiful (12mo.); Proclus on Euclid, and Elements of Theology; Five Books of Plotinus; Pausanias's Description of Greece, with Notes (3 vols., 8vo., 1794); Aristotle's Metaphysics, with Notes; the Dissertations of Maximus Tyrius (2 vols., 12mo.); the Works of Plato (5 vols., 4to., 1804); the Works of Aristotle, with Elucidations from the best Greek Commentators (9 vols., 4to.); the Six Books of Proclus on the Theology of Plato, to which a Seventh Book is added by the translator ; Jamblichus's Life of Pythagoras, or Pythagoric Life, accompanied by fragments

of the Ethical Writings of certain Pythagoreans, and a new Collection of Pythagoric Sentences; the Commentaries of Proclus on the Timæus; Jamblichus on the Mysteries, &c. (8vo.). Among his original works are a Dissertation on the Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries; a Complete Collection of all the existing Chaldæan Oracles; the Elements of the true Arithmetic of Infinites; Miscellanies in Prose and Verse, with a great number of treatises accompanying his translations, and of articles in the Classical Journal.

TAYLOR, Jane; an amiable and accomplished female writer, born Sept. 23, 1783, in London. Her father was a highly respectable artist. While quite young, she gave evident indications of poetic talent. Mr. Taylor became, in 1792, pastor of a dissenting congregation at Colchester, whither he carried his daughters, and taught them his own art of engraving. In the intervals between these pursuits, Miss Taylor committed the effusions of her genius to writing, and contributed to the Minor's Pocket Book, a small publication, in which her first work, the Beggar Boy, appeared in 1804. From this period until 1813,she continued to publish occasionally miscellaneous pieces in verse, of which the principal are Original Poems for Infant Minds (in two volumes); Rhymes for the Nursery (in one); and some verses in the Associate Minstrels. A prose composition of higher pretension, which appeared in 1815, under the name of Display, met with much success. Her last and principal work consists of Essays in Rhyme on Morals and Manners, didactic poems, written with much elegance and feeling. This amiable and intellectual female died of a pulmonary complaint, in April, 1823.

TCHAD; a lake in the interior of Africa, in the western part of Nigritia (q. v.), discovered by major Denham, in 1822. (See Clapperton.) It lies between the kingdoms of Bornou and Kanem, in lat. 12° N., lon. 17° E. As it has not been entirely explored, its north-eastern limits are unknown, and its extent is uncertain. It receives two large rivers, the Yeou and the Shary, from the south-west.

TCHAI (in Turkish and Persian, river); found in many geographical names. In Chinese geographical names, Tchaï signifies fortified place. Tai, Pao, Ooei, and other words, signify the same.

TCHANG (Chinese for middle); in many geographical names, as Tchang-Kone (Central Kingdom), the name which the Chinese give to their empire.

TCHERNY; a Sclavonic word, signifying black, and sometimes tributary. Tcherny appears in many geographical names, as Tchernikov, Tchernovitz.

TCHING; Chinese for town and wall, as Sin-Tching (New Town).

TCHUDSKO LAKE. (See Peipus.)

TEA (thea). The tea plant so strongly resembles the camellia in its botanical characters, that it has lately been referred to that genus. The flowers and leaves are, however, much smaller. The shrub attains the height of five or six feet, and is branching and evergreen. The leaves are alternate, oval-oblong, serrated, about an inch and a half in length, of a dark, glossy-green color, and firm texture. The flowers are solitary or in pairs, disposed in the axils of the leaves; the corolla white, and composed of six petals. It is a native of China and Japan, and has been cultivated, and in common use in those countries, from the most remote antiquity. Tea was hardly known in Europe before the middle of the seventeenth century, but now has become an article of such commercial importance in that portion of the globe, as to employ more that fifty thousand tons of shipping in the transportation of it from Canton. Still so vast is the home consumption, that it is alleged, that were Europeans to abandon the commerce altogether, the price would not be much diminished in China. It appears to be cultivated in all parts of China, even in the vicinity of Pekin, which is in the same latitude as Philadelphia, and has a very similar climate. It succeeds best in south exposures and in the neighborhood of running water. As the seeds are very apt to spoil, and scarcely one in five will germinate, it is usual to plant several in the same hole, at the depth of four or five inches. The plants require little further care than that of removing the weeds, till the third year, when the leaves may be gathered. In seven years, the plants have attained the height of six feet; but, as they bear few leaves, they are trimmed down, which produces a great number of new leaves. The leaves are plucked off, one by one, with many precautions; and only from four to fifteen pounds are collected in a day. In a district in Japan, where the tea plant is cultivated with peculiar care, the first gathering takes place at the end of the winter, when the leaves are young and tender, and are only a few days old: these, on account of their scarcity and dearness, are reserved for the wealthy, and called imperial tea. The second gather

ing is at the beginning of spring, when some leaves have attained their full size, and others are only expanding: all are gathered promiscuously, and afterwards sorted: the youngest especially are separated with great care, and often sold for the imperial. The third and last gathering takes place towards the middle of summer: the leaves are now fully expanded, of inferior quality, and are reserved for the common people. In China the leaves are probably collected in the same manner. There are two varieties of the tea plant-T. viridis, with broader leaves, and T. bohea-by some writers considered distinct species. Formerly, it was thought that green tea was gathered exclusively from T. viridis; but this is now doubtful; though it is certain there is what is called the green tea district, and the black tea district; and the varie ties of the one differ from those of the other district. Doctor Abel was told, by competent persons, that either of the two plants will afford the black or green tea of the shops, but that the T. viridis is preferred for making green tea. The names given, in commerce, to the different sorts of tea, are unknown to the Chinese, the imperial excepted, and are supposed to have been applied by the merchants at Canton. The tea leaves, being gathered, are cured in houses which contain from five to ten or twenty small furnaces, about three feet high, each having at the top a large, flat, iron pan. There is also a long, low table, covered with mats, on which the leaves are laid, and rolled by workmen, who sit round it. The iron pan being heated to a certain degree by a Îittle fire made in the furnace underneath, a few pounds of the fresh gathered leaves are put upon the pan: the fresh and juicy leaves crack when they touch the pan; and it is the business of the operator to shift them as quickly as possible with his bare hands, till they become too hot to be easily endured. At this instant, he takes off the leaves with a kind of shovel resembling a fan, and pours them on the mats: other operators, now taking small quantities at a time, roll them in the palm of their hands in one direction, while a third set are fanning them, that they may cool the more speedily, and retain their curl the longer This process is repeated two or three times, or oftener, before the tea is put into the stores, in order that all the moisture may be thoroughly dissipated, and their curl more completely preserved. On every repetition, the pan is less heated, and the operation performed more closely

1

161

and cautiously. The tea is then sepa rated into the different kinds, and deposited in the store for domestic use or exportation. The different sorts of black and green arise not merely from soil, situation, or the age of the leaf; but after winnowing the tea, the leaves are taken up in succession as they fall; those nearest the machine, being the heaviest, are the gunpowder tea; the lightest, the worst, is chiefly used by the lower classes. That which is brought down to Canton then undergoes a second roasting, winnowing, packing, &c.; and many hundred women are employed for these purposes. As a more select sort of tea, the flowers of the camellia sasanqua appear to be collected. The leaves, indeed, of this plant are often used, and sometimes those of the other species of camellia, though that practice is rather to be considered in the light of adulteration. Several other plants appear to be used as substitutes for tea, as a species of moss, different sorts of ferns, &c.; and in Japan the leaves of the olea fragrans are used to give it a high flavor. The seeds of the tea plant, as well as of the camellias, and especially of the C. oleifera, are crushed for their oil, which is in very general use in the domestic economy of China. The black teas, usually imported by Europeans and Americans, are, beginning with the lowest qualities, bohea, congo, campo, souchong, pouchong, pekoe; the green teas are twankay, hysor skin, young hyson, hyson, imperial, and gun powder. The effects of tea on the human system are those of a very mild narcotic, and, like those of any other narcotic taken in small quantities, exhilarating. green varieties of the plant possess this quality in a much higher degree than the black, and a strong infusion of the former will, in most constitutions, produce considerable excitement and wakefulness. Of all narcotics, however, tea is the least pernicious, if indeed it be so in any degree. It acts, likewise, as a diuretic and a diaphoretic, and powerfully assists digestion. Most of the attempts to cultivate the tea plant in foreign countries have met with little success. Within the last few years, however, considerable efforts have been made, by the Dutch government of Java, to produce tea in that island, with the assistance of Chinese cultivators, with some prospect of success; and the experiment has been made to propagate the tea shrub in Brazil, also with the aid of Chinese laborers. Tea, as we have said, was unknown in Europe until the middle of the 17th century, when

The

a small quantity was first imported by the Dutch. In 1664, the English East India company imported two pounds and two ounces of tea, as a present to the king. In 1800, the annual consumption in England was somewhat above twenty million pounds, since which time it has been gradually declining, owing in part to the increase of duty in 1806 and 1819, and in part to the monopoly of the East India company. The present consumption is estimated at about twenty-five million pounds, which, for a population of sixteen and a half millions, gives but one pound nine ounces per head, while in 1800 it was one pound thirteen and a half ounces. This monopoly renders the prices of tea higher, the qualities inferior, and the varieties fewer, in England, than on the continent, or in the U. States; so that, while about a dozen kinds of tea are quoted in the Hamburg and New York markets, not more than six or seven are to be inet with in England. Imperial is unknown there, and pekoe and gunpowder are found only in small quantities. Russia and Holland are the only countries, on the continent of Europe, in which the consumption of tea is considerable. In 1830, the imports into Russia amounted to 5,563,444 pounds, almost entirely of the black sorts. It is carried over land from Kiachta to Tomsk, and thence, partly by land and partly by the rivers, to Novgorod. The consumption in Holland amounts to about 2,700,000 pounds a year. In France, tea is not generally used, and the consumption is estimated not to exceed 230,000 pounds. The importations into Hamburg vary from 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 pounds, the greater part of which is forwarded to the interior of Germany. The imports into Venice and Trieste do not exceed seven hundred weight. The consumption of the U. States fluctuates from about 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 pounds. The amount imported in the year ending September 30, 1830, was 8,609,415 pounds; exported 1,736,324 pounds. The duties, by the tariff of 1832, cease entirely on the 3d of March, 1833. The consumption of this country has remained nearly stationary for some years, while that of coffee has increased with great rapidity. The prices of the different sorts of tea quoted in the Boston pricecurrent for July 30, 1832, are, bohea, 24 to 28 cents per pound; souchong, 35 to 37; hyson skin and tonkay, 50 to 55; young hyson, 70 to 77; Hyson, 80 to 85; imperial, 1.08 to 1.12; gunpowder, 1.10 to 1.15. Pouchong and pekoe are not

quoted: the former is somewhat higher than souchong; the latter is higher than gunpowder.

TEAK-WOOD (tectona grandis); one of the largest trees known, and one of the most interesting, from the properties of the wood. It is referred to the natural family verbenacea. The young branches are quadrangular and jointed; the leaves opposite, obovate and downy beneath, somewhat declining, on young trees from one to two feet long, and eight to sixteen inches in breadth. The flowers are small, white and fragrant, disposed in widely spreading terminal panicles. The calyx is tomentose, and the corolla hardly longer than the calyx. The fruit is a one-celled drupe. This tree abounds in the extensive forests of Java, Ceylon, Malabar, Coromandel, &c., but especially in the empires of Birmah and Pegu, from which countries Calcutta and Madras draw all their supplies of ship timber. The wood is light and easily worked, and, at the same time, strong and durable. It is considered superior to all others for ship building, and is, besides, extensively used in the East in the construction of houses and temples. This tree has been introduced into the British possessions in India, and is now planted, with a view to timber, in the mountainous parts of Bengal. Its cultivation has also been recommended in the West Indies; and some circumstances seem to encourage the idea that it will succeed beyond the tropics. The leaves furnish a purple dye, which which is employed for coloring cottons and silks.

TEAL. This name is given to some small species of duck, resembling, in their habits and anatomical characters, the domestic species. Teal frequent the fresh waters of the interior, living on aquatic plants and seeds, and rarely visit the seashore. The flesh is dry and difficult of digestion, but, notwithstanding, is in great request. We have two species in the U. States. The green-winged teal (anas crecca) is distinguished by a large spot of brilliant green upon the wing. It is found in all the northern parts of the globe. In Europe, it breeds so far south as France, but is not known to breed in the U. States.-The blue-winged teal (A. discors) is peculiar to America. It is the first of our ducks to return from the north on the approach of winter, usually making its appearance in the Delaware early in September, and proceeding far ther south with the first frosts.

TEAR, and LACHRYMAL ORGANS. The