he disavowed having made any concessions to the court, and was, in consequence, ordered by Charles to depart from the kingdom. On the accession of James II, Monmouth, finding himself pursued by the king's severity, was induced, contrary to his judgment and inclination, by the impatience of some of his partisans, to attempt an invasion of England. He arrived at Lime with hardly a hundred followers (June, 1685); but his numbers were soon increased, and he assumed the title of king, and asserted the legitimacy of his birth. His forces were defeated at Sedgemore Bridgewater, and the duke himself was made prisoner, having been found in the disguise of a peasant, lying at the bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger, fatigue and anxiety. He refused to betray his accomplices, and conducted himself with much firmness on the scaffold, where his head was severed from his body, after four unsuccessful blows. The people, of whom he was still the favorite, believed that the person executed was not Monmouth, but one of his friends, who resembled him so nearly as to pass himself off for the duke, and suffer in his stead. It was probably this belief which has led some to conjecture that the famous Iron Mask was the duke of Monmouth.

MONNIER, Pierre Charles Le; astronomer, member of the academies at Paris, London and Berlin, was born at Paris in 1715, and early displayed a decided inclination for astronomical studies. In his sixteenth year, he made observations on Saturn, and in his twentieth year communicated to the academy of sciences in Paris his Nouvelle Figure de la Lune, avec la Description des Taches. The academy admitted him into their number, and, in 1735, he went with Maupertuis to Lapland. In 1748, Monnier observed the annular eclipse of the sun, in Scotland, and was the first who measured the moon's diameter on the sun's disk. In 1750, Louis XV employed him to run a meridian line through the castle of Bellevue. Lalande, with whom he was afterwards on unfriendly terms, was his pupil, and always spoke of him with the highest esteem. Lemonnier was of an impetuous and capricious temper; and after his death several valuable works were found among his papers, which, in spite of all entreaties, he had obstinately refused to publish, and which he threatened to burn. Among them was a catalogue of fixed stars, the plan of which he had exhibited to the academy in 1741. He was indefatigable in his labors, and his whole life was de

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voted to science, which is indebted to him for many improvements. He was the first to determine the difference of refraction in summer and winter. He corrected the tables of the sun, and the catalogues of the stars, fixed with greater accuracy the inclination of the ecliptic, and ascertained the elevation of the pole at Paris. He introduced into France the transit-instrument constructed by Graham, and pointed out the irregularities in the motion of Saturn, produced by the attraction of Jupiter. He died in 1799. Of his numerous works, his Histoire Céleste and his Théorie des Comètes deserve to be particularly mentioned.

MONOCHORD (from the Greek); an ancient instrument, or machine, so called, because it is furnished with only one string. Its use is to measure and adjust the ratios of the intervals, which it effects by the means of movable bridges, calculated to divide the chord at the pleasure of the speculatist. The monochord appears to have been in constant use with the ancients, as the only means of forming the ear to the accurate perception, and the voice to the true intonation, of those minute and difficult intervals which were then practised in melody.

MONOCHROME (Gr. povos, single, and xowμa, color), in ancient painting; a painting with one single color. This description of art is very ancient, and was known to the Etruscans. The first specimens of the art of painting were of one tint only, which was most commonly red, made either with cinnabar or minium. Instead of red, white paint was sometimes used. Quintilian says of Polygnotus, and Pliny of Zeuxis, that their performances of this kind were of the latter description. The antique tombs of the Tarquins, in the neighborhood of Corneto, offer several figures painted in white upon a dark ground. The first four plates in the first volume of the paintings of Herculaneum contain several monochromes upon marble. The most numerous monuments existing of this kind of painting are on terra cotta.

MONOCRAT has been used by a few writers to designate with one word an absolute monarch. They object to autocrat, as not sufficiently precise, since there might be also an autocratic body, that is, several or many persons who govern without any dependence on those who are governed.

MONODRAMA; a drama in which only one person plays.

MONOGRAM (Ovos, single, or only, and

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Yoappa), in archæology; a character or cipher composed of one, two, or more letters interwoven, being a sort of abbreviation of a name, anciently used as a seal, badge, arms, &c. They were used on coins, standards, walls and tapestry, seals and documents; first on coins, latest on documents, in which they were employed not only by princes and ecclesiastical dignities, but also by magistrates and notaries. Their use particularly as arms is ancient, as appears from Plutarch, and from some Greek medals of the time of Philip of Macedon, and Alexander, his son. The Roman labarum bore the monogram of Jesus Christ, which consisted of two letters, an P placed perpendicularly through the middle of a x, as we find it on many medals of the age of Constantine, these being the two first letters of the word XPIETOE. Under the Eastern empire, it is usual to find MIK, which form the monogram of Mary, Jesus, Constantine. The use of monograms was exceedingly common upon Greek coins; and many antiquarians have bestowed much time and attention in the effort to decipher them-a useless labor, since a great number of these monograms were, without doubt, of a conventional nature, and understood only by a few, even in the times at which the coins were current. After the time of Charlemagne, who made much use of them, and improved their form, monograms became very common in all the countries which had belonged to the Frankish empire, but after the twelfth century, gradually went out of use. The use of them remained longest in Germany, where it was formally abolished by the diet of Worms, in 1495. The knowledge of monograms of this public kind is of great importance for the illustration of the monuments and documents of the middle ages, and therefore forms a particular branch of diplomatics. The term was subsequently applied to all sorts of ciphers and signs, with which artists, particularly painters and engravers, were accustomed to designate their works. These have often been counterfeited. The ancients called every outline, every simple sketch, a monogram. Montfaucon, in his Paléographie Grecque, has given a very extensive catalogue of monograms taken from medals of various kinds. John Fr. Christ's collection of figures of monograms, accompanied by explanations,-Anzeige und Auslegung der Monogrammatum (Leipsic, 1747),—is valuable; also Brouillot's celebrated Dict. des Monogrammes, completed and corrected,

in his Table générale des Monogr., Chiffres. &c. (Munich, 1820).

MONOGRAPH (povos, only, single, ypapur); a treatise on a single subject in literature or science; thus we say, a monograph on violets, a monograph on Egyptian mummies. The advantage of a treatise of this nature is, that it allows more minuteness of detail in reference to all the properties and relations of the subject of the monograph. Papers in the memoirs or transactions of literary and scientific societies, and in periodical journals, are often monographs, and have contributed much to the progress of modern science.

MONOLITHIC (from povos, single, and Aos, stone); consisting of a single stone. According to Herodotus, there was a monolithic sanctuary attached to a temple at Sais, dedicated to Minerva, 21 cubits long, 14 wide, and 8 high, which was brought from Elephantine. The carriage of it employed 2000 men three years. Some striking specimens of monolithic temples are still found in Egypt, and, like the monolithic obelisks, bear testimony to the wonderful application of mechanical power among the ancient Egyptians. (See Obelisks.)

MONOLOGUE (ovos, single, doyos, discourse); in distinction from dialogue (q. v.), in the drama; the same as soliloquy. (See Soliloquy.)

ΜΟΝΟΜΑΝΤ (from μονος and μανια); the name given, by some physicians, to that form of mania, in which the mind of the patient is absorbed by one idea; for instance, if the patient believes that he is God, or Christ, an emperor, &c. (See Mental Derangement.)

MONONGAHELA; a river which rises from the Laurel mountains, in Virginia, runs north into Pennsylvania, and unites with the Alleghany, at Pittsburg, to form the Ohio. It is navigable for batteaux and barges 32 miles, to Brownsville, and still further for lighter boats. Its length is about 300 miles.

MONOPHYSITES; the members of the party who, according to the language adopted in the fifth century, maintain that there is but one nature in Christ, that is, that the divine and human natures were so united as to form but one nature, yet without any change, confusion or mixture of the two natures. They were condemned as heretics, at the council of Chalcedon, in 451, which maintained that in Christ two distinct natures were united in one person, and that without any change, mixture or confusion. This distinction without a difference gave rise to a violent

dispute. The Asiatic and Egyptian clergy were inclined to the Monophysites, and were unanimous in maintaining the unity of nature as well as of person in Jesus, while the Western contended for the decree of the council. The edict called Henoticon, issued by the emperor Zeno, in 482, was not able to quiet the combatants, and, after long and often bloody contests, the orthodox church, by its sentences of excommunication, occasioned a formal secession on the part of the Monophysites. This separation took place in the first half of the sixth century, when the protection which the Monophysites had hitherto received at times from the court at Constantinople, necessarily ceased from the close union of the emperor Justinian with the Roman church. Neither did they reinain united among themselves. In 483, the Acephali (q. v.) had already seceded, and formed the real strength of Monophysitism. In 519, new controversies arose among them respecting the question whether the body of Christ is corruptible or not. The Severites, adherents of a deposed patriarch of Antioch, Severus, who belonged to the Acephali, answered in the affirmative; the Julianists, or Gajanites, adherents of the bishops Julianus, or Gajanus, in the negative. The former were, therefore, called Phthartolatrians (Corrupticole, servants of corruptibility); the latter, Aphthartodoceta (teachers of incorruptibility), or Phantasiasts, who again divided respecting the question whether the body of Christ was created, and formed the parties of Actistetæ, those who held it increate, and the Ctistolatrians, who believed it created. The Severites, also called, from one of their bishops, Theodosians, acquired the superiority, and pronounced excommunications against the Agnoëta, who also arose among them (so called, because they denied the omniscience of Christ as a man). About 560, a Monophysite, Askusnages, and after him Philoponus, the greatest Christian philosopher of that century, conceived the idea of styling the three persons of the Deity three Gods. These tritheists and their adherents, even in the eyes of the Monophysites, were the rankest heretics, and were the occasion of many Monophysites turning Catholics. In Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia, the Monophysite congregations, however, remained the strongest, had patriarchs at Alexandria and Antioch, existing, without interruption, by the side of the imperial or orthodox patriarchs; and, after the Syrian, Jacob Baradæus, who died 588, had established their

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religious constitution, formed the independent churches of the Jacobites and Armenians (q. v.), which separated from the Greeks as well as the Romans, and have, for that reason, been able to maintain themselves since the seventh century, even under the dominion of the Mohammedans. Excepting their peculiar doctrine of one nature in Christ, they coincide, in the main points of belief, with the Greek church; their worship also resembles the Greek, rather than the Roman, but has, from their national character and their superstition, received variations, which are most striking in the religious constitution of the Egyptian Jacobites. These Copts are in communion with the Syrian Jacobites, but have their own patriarch at Cairo, the patriarch of Alexandria, who has ten bishoprics under him. The Bible and liturgical books they possess in the old Coptic language, which is the same as the Egyptian current under the Ptolemies, at the time of the dominion of the Greeks, and has, therefore, some similarity with the Greck, but is now a dead language. They baptize their children always in the church, and never till they are forty days old, and frequently not till they are seven years of age; but immediately after baptism, they receive the wine of the eucharist. The Lord's supper they celebrate only in the great fasts, use, in the celebration, leavened bread, which is broken, and taste the wine with spoons. According to a custom that had its origin in times of persecution, they attend divine worship in the night, between Saturday and Sunday. It consists merely of service at the altar, of singing, prayer, and reading by the priests, who are, moreover, extremely ignorant, and cannot preach. The patriarch preaches but once a year. Relics, poorly executed, images in their churches, the worship of saints, &c., they have in common with the Greeks. Circumcision is customary only with the Copts in Upper Egypt. In their thinly-peopled convents, monks reside with women and children. A fourth Monophysite church is the Abyssinian, which receives its spiritual head from the Copts. (See Abyssinia.) Connected with the Monophysite controversy was the question started in the beginning of the seventh century, whether, in Christ, the united divine and human nature had but one, or two wills. This gave rise to a dispute, which the emperor Constans tried in vain to appease, by his edict, called Typus. The decision of the Trullah council, at Constantinople, in 680, that there were

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two wills in Christ, because he had two natures, made the Monothelites (advocates of the doctrine of one will) heretics, but could not prevent the formation, from their remains, of the sect of the Maronites. (q. v.) MONOPOLY is an exclusive right, secured to one or more persons, to carry on some branch of trade or manufacture, in contradistinction to a freedom of trade or manufacture enjoyed by all the world, or by all the subjects of a particular country. Thus the East India trade is a monopoly in England, as far as it is confined, by law, to the East India company, though foreigners are allowed to trade to the British East Indies; but the West India trade, as far as it is open to all British subjects, is not a monopoly, though foreigners may be (as they, indeed, heretofore have been) excluded from it. The most frequent monopolies, formerly granted in Europe, were the right of trading to certain foreign countries, the right of importing or exporting certain articles, and that of exercising particular arts or trades, in certain towns or boroughs. These species of monopoly are now generally understood to be injurious. They still subsist, however, to a very considerable extent in Europe, but they have never been introduced into the U. States. There is, however, one species of monopoly

sanctioned by the laws, not only of the U. States, but of all countries that have made any advances in the arts, namely, the exclusive right of an invention or improvement for a limited number of years. The exclusive right of an author to the publication of his own work, is hardly a monopoly, but rather a right of property, resting upon the same principle as the right to lands or chattels. The law, therefore, by giving an author the exclusive right to the publication of his own work, for a limited number of years, makes no grant; it is only allowing him what is his own, for a limited time. But the exclusive right to the use of an invention or improvement, is a monopoly, since it deprives others, for that period, of the chance of the advantage of making the same improvement, discovery or invention themselves. It is taking away a right which they before had. The reason for this is, the encouragement of inventions and improvements, in the policy of which all the world concur. This is the only kind of monopoly recognised in the U. States, and the only one generally acknowledged, in Europe, to be useful and expedient.

MONOPTERAL TEMPLES. (See Architecture, vol. i, p. 341.)

LOUIS XII, king of France from 1498 to 1515, called by his subjects le père du peuple, was born in 1462. Before his accession to the throne, which took place after the death of Charles VIII, he was duke of Orleans, and first prince of the blood. The lessons of his German mother, Mary of Cleves, and the misfortunes which he underwent at a later period, corrected the faults of his education, which had been purposely neglected, in compliance with the will of Louis XI. (q. v.) On ascending the throne, he pardoned the wrongs which he had suffered before his accession. "The king of France," said he, "must not revenge the injuries done to the duke of Orleans." He showed himself grateful toward his friends. The ambitious Georges d'Amboise, his minister, archbishop of Rouen and cardinal legate, enjoyed his full confidence. After the death of this minister, in 1510, Louis took the reins himself. He reestablished discipline in the army, and brought the turbulent students of Paris to order-a task which was not without difficulty, on account of their great number, and the privileges which they enjoyed. He much improved the administration of justice, lessened the taxes, and would never consent to increase them, though he was engaged in many wars. The expense of these he supplied by making a number of offices venal, and selling some crown estates. He united the duchy of Brittany for ever with the crown, by marrying, in 1499, the widow of Charles VIII, the beautiful Anne, duchess of Brittany, the object of his love even before his separation from the excellent, but extremely plain Jeanne, daughter of Louis XI, whom he had been forced to marry, and who had borne him no children. In order to enforce the rights which he inherited from his grand

mother, Valentina Visconti, to the duchy of Milan, against Louis Sforza, called Moro (see Sforza), he sent, in 1499, an army over the Alps, which conquered the duchy of Milan within twelve days; after which Genoa also surrendered to him. In vain did Louis Moro attempt to maintain himself by the assistance of the Swiss; he was taken prisoner, in 1500, at Novara, and died, in 1510, in confinement at Loches in France. In 1500, Louis XII concluded a treaty with Ferdinand the Catholic, by which the kingdom of Naples was divided between them. King Frederic of Naples proceeded to France, where Louis gave him a considerable annuity. But Ferdinand possessed himself of the whole kingdom of Naples, and retained it by the treaty of 1505. Louis had promised to marry his daughter Claude to the grandson of the German emperor, Charles of Luxemburg, afterwards Charles V (q. v.), and to give her Brittany, Burgundy and Milan as a dowry. But the estates assembled in 1506 at Tours, begged on their knees the father of his people, as they called him, to marry his daughter to Francis, count of Angoulème, of the family of Valois. Louis consented; the estates declared the first contract of marriage void, and contrary to the fundamental laws of the realm, and Francis married Claude. Louis now devoted himself particularly to the education of this prince, who was to succeed him (see Francis I), but at first with so little success, that on one occasion he sorrowfully exclaimed, "Nous travaillons en vain ; ce gros garçon gâtera tout. The league of Cambray (see League), established by pope Julius II against Venice, in 1508, involved France in a new war. Louis now commanded the army in person, and was victorious over the Venetians, at