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Cologne was one of the principal cities of the Hanseatic league. When most powerful it could put 30,000 men into the field. In 1259 it obtained the right to require that all goods which arrived in vessels should be unloaded and shipped in Cologne bottoms. Important commercial privileges were granted to it in England. It was the channel of commerce with the East, and had business relations with Spain, Portugal, and Italy. The celebration of the carnival, and the exhibition of puppets, which are still kept up, bear witness to the influence of Italian tastes. Cologne was sometimes called the Rome of the north. Various causes contributed to the diminution of its prosperity. The route of commerce was changed. The clergy acquired undue influence, and feuds arose between them and the citizens. The Jews were expelled. Disturbances were afterward created by the weavers, and the magistrates caused their looms to be destroyed, in consequence of which they left the city. In the 16th century restrictions were placed by the Dutch upon the navigation of the Rhine; and in 1618 the Protestants were banished from the city. As prosperity diminished, the number of beggars and priests increased, until it was said that the beggars were 12,000 in number, and that there were as many steeples in Cologne as there are days in the year. In 1794, when the city fell into the hands of the French, it contained about 40,000 inhabitants, of whom more than one fourth lived by mendicity. The French government at once attacked this social evil. It secularized many churches and religious foundations, and adopted the most stringent measures against the abuses which had grown out of them. In 1814 it was restored to Prussia. The restrictions upon the navigation of the Rhine were removed in 1837; steamboats have been introduced, and railways have been constructed, by which Cologne is connected with all the principal cities of the continent. In February, 1873, a proposition was submitted by Prince Bismarck to appropriate $9,000,000 for the erection and improvement of fortifications. The Kölnische Zeitung is one of the most influential newspapers in Germany, being the organ of the liberal party, as the Kölnische Volksblätter is of the Roman Catholics.

COLOGNE WATER. See EAU DE COLOgne. COLOMBIA, United States of (Estados Unidos de Colombia), formerly NEW GRANADA, a republic of South America, lying between lat. 12° 21′ N. and 1° 20' S., and lon. 68° 52′ and 83° 5′ W. It is bounded N. by the Caribbean sea, N. E. and E. by Venezuela, S. E. by Brazil, S. by Ecuador, and W. by the Pacific ocean and Costa Rica. Its extreme length from N. to S. is about 1,000 m., extreme breadth about 760 m.; but its average breadth is much less, it being only 28 m. wide at the isthmus of Panama. The area is estimated at from 480,- | 000 to 521,000 sq. m. The republic is divided into nine federal states, which, with their areas, population, and capitals, are as follows:

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Bogotá, the national capital, with its environs, forms a federal district, but the city is also the capital of the state of Cundinamarca. - The coasts of Colombia are deeply indented by large and fine bays, the principal of which are the gulfs of Darien and Maracaibo on the Caribbean sea and the gulf of Panama on the Pacific. There are many smaller bays on both oceans, which make excellent harbors. Among the chief ports, besides the free ports of Panama and Aspinwall or Colon, are Cartagena, Sabanilla, Santa Marta, and Rio Hacha on the Atlantic, and Buenaventura on the Pacific. Chiriqui lagoon and Porto Bello, on the Caribbean sea, and Humboldt, Cupica, and San Juan or Chirambira, on the Pacific, also furnish good harbors. There are numerous islands along the coast, none of which are very large. In the Caribbean sea are the islands of San Andrés and Providence. In the Chiriqui lagoon are 11 islands, of which Boca del Toro is the largest, and there are many more along the coast of Cartagena. In the gulf of Panama are the island of Tobago and a group called the Archipelago of Pearls.-The surface of Colombia is more equally diversified than that of any other South American state, being nearly evenly divided into mountain, valley, and plain. Not far from the borders of Ecuador, about lat. 1° 20′ N., the range of the Andes separates into two branches. The W. branch, which follows the line of the coast, is called la Cordillera de la Costa. The E. branch pursues a N. E. course from the point of separation until it reaches lat. 1° 50′ N., when it again divides and forms two chains nearly parallel, between which lies the valley of the Magdalena. The most easterly of these chains, which follows the right bank of the Magdalena, is called the E. Cordillera of Cundinamarca. Between the central and the coast range is the valley of the Cauca, and W. of the latter the mineral region of Choco. By some the eastern range is called the Cordillera de la Suma Paz, from the mountains of the name near Bogotá; the central, the Quindiu; and the western, the Choco. The latter, though comparatively low, has few and difficult passes. The E. branch is much the greatest in extent, and consists of a series of table lands or plateaus, from 8,000 to 14,000 ft. in elevation. In this plateau, which is cool and salubrious, the ancient Chibchas had their seat. It produces in the greatest profusion the fruits and grains of the temperate zone, and

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contains more than one third of the population of the republic. About lat. 5° N. the E. range rises to the height of perpetual snow, but the highest peak is that of Tolima, in the middle chain, lat. 4° 46′ N., which rises 18,020 ft. This is the most lofty summit of the Andes proper north of the equator. The range of Santa Marta, which extends along the N. coast between the central and the E. chains, is 19,000 ft. high, but it does not belong to the Andes. The name Andes is here used only as a systematic denomination, for it is unknown

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in the countries N. of the equator. The mountains of the isthmus of Panama, by their direction and their geographical position, may be considered as a continuation of the mountains of Antioquia and Choco, or the western Cordillera. Between the mountain chains lie immense valleys and plains, which differ much in character. On the east the llanos, extending to the Orinoco, are generally either swamps or sunburnt deserts destitute of trees. In the rainy season immense herds of cattle and horses find pasturage on them. The W. coast and a great

part of the isthmus are covered with luxuriant | and almost impenetrable forests, and are little known. The whole Atrato valley was once a vast estuary of the sea, whose waves broke upon the very feet of the Cordilleras. The fossiliferous rocks near the head waters of the Tuira show that the country was at one time submerged by the Pacific ocean, shell fish of the same character as the fossils being found living both in the Pacific and the Atlantic at the present time. The swamps about the Atrato river rest on beds of gold-bearing clay, which the natives wash with considerable profit. Toward the close of the last century a channel was cut by a monk across the socalled isthmus of Raspadura, connecting the head waters of the Atrato and of the San Juan, passing near Quibdo, lat. 5° 50′ N., by which communication by boats is still maintained between the Atlantic and the Pacific. The valley of the Cauca, between the W. and central ranges of the Cordilleras, is one of the richest, most fertile, and most populous districts in South America. It consists of two plateaus of different elevation and temperature. The soil is deep, and tinged with a red or yellow color. The pastures are rich, and the lands are well cultivated. The valley of the Magdalena comprises an area of about 75,000 sq. m. The soil is very fertile, but the climate is hot, and in portions insalubrious. Owing to the wide ramifications of the Andes, a large part of Colombia lies at an elevation of from 5,000 to 10,000 ft. above the sea; but in consequence of the unhealthfulness of the coast and the in- | accessibility of the mountain passes, the great resources of the country are comparatively undeveloped. On the east the river Orinoco forms a part of the boundary line between Colombia and Venezuela, and on the south the Putumayo separates it from Ecuador. Into the former flow the Guaviare, Vichada, Meta, and a number of smaller streams. The principal affluents of the Marañon or Amazon in the republic, besides the Putumayo, are the Rio Caqueta, sometimes called the Japura or Hyapura, and the Rio Negro. The Vaupes or Ucayari is a branch of the latter. Colombia has the right of navigating the Amazon and the Orinoco. But the most important of all its rivers is the Magdalena, with its tributary the Cauca. They traverse nearly the entire country from N. to S. They both rise in the Andes, about lat. 2° N., and pursue a nearly parallel course, the former on the east and the latter on the west of the central range, until they unite in lat. 9° 20′ N., again to divide in lat. 9° 57', and fall into the Caribbean sea by two deltas, one in lat. 10° and the other in lat. 11° 7', forming an island of 3,150 sq. m. The Magdalena, navigated by steam to Honda, is on an average 1,750 ft. lower than the Cauca, whose stream is therefore very impetuous. The Funza, which rises 100 m. N. of Bogotá, runs in a S. W. direction to Tequendama, where it plunges down a precipice over 600 ft.

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high, falling from the region of oaks, willows, and wheat, to that of the palm and sugar cane. The Atrato rises in lat. 5° 20′ N., flows N., and falls into the gulf of Darien. To the distance of 180 m. from the sea it is deep enough for the largest ships; and extensive traffic between Quibdo and Cartagena is carried on by bongos, or large canoes. The navigation of this river and those of the isthmus was prohibited on pain of death by Philip II., lest foreign powers should gain a knowledge of means of connecting the two oceans. The rivers draining the W. chain of the Cordilleras into the Pacific are small. The most important are the Patia and the San Juan, which communicate with the high, salubrious, and fertile districts of Popayan, Pasto, Tuquerres, and the famous valley of Cauca, which Bolivar called the "Italy of America." Small lakes are numerous in the mountains, but there are none of large extent. Paletara, Las Papas, Una, and Caucagua are the most noteworthy. Into Guatavita, a small lake near Bogotá, the Indians are said to have thrown their treasures when about to abandon the country to the Spaniards. Curious and valuable articles have been fished up from its depths, but attempts made to drain it have proved a failure.

The geological conditions of Colombia are equally extraordinary and perplexing. Everywhere are found traces of stupendous cataclysms, and a disarrangement and intermixture of primitive and sedimentary rocks, which seem to set classification at defiance. In some places great rivers and even small streams have cut through mountains of the hardest rocks, leaving dizzy escarpments on each side; in others are enormous subsidences in the earth, as if the props of its surface had suddenly given way, or vast caverns glistening with stalactites; while everywhere colossal masses, lifted high above the general level, attest the violence of volcanic agencies. These agencies are still active in places, as in Batan near Sogamoso, where the soil is so much heated that, although in the heart of the Andes, it produces all the fruits of the tropics. The celebrated Colombian geologist, Joaquin Acosta, describes great glaciers which he saw in the Paramo of Ruiz, a phenomenon which escaped the attention of both Humboldt and Boussingault. Col. Codazzi demonstrated that in the highlands of Bogotá, Tunja, and Velez, where is now the densest population, there once existed a system of broad and deep lakes, which, breaking through their barriers, precipitated themselves through what is now the river Suarez or Sogamoso into the ocean, leaving the traces of their irruption boldly marked on the face of the country. The same authority conceives that this great cataclysm may have occurred within the past four centuries. Some evidence in support of his theory is afforded by two great stones which have been discovered on opposite sides of what must have been the borders of the principal lake; both

face toward the points of rupture of the mountains, and the faces of both are covered with sculptures, among which are distinguishable figures of the frog (the Chibcha sign of water) with outspread feet, and human figures with upraised arms, in attitude of surprise or alarm. Among the natural curiosities of the country are the falls of Tequendama; the natural bridge of Pandi or Icononzo, spanning the river Suma Paz at an elevation of 600 ft.; the cascade of the Rio Vinagre, so called from the sulphuric acid with which its waters are charged; the great orifices called Hoyo del Aire and Hoyo de los Pájaros, near Velez; the Peñon de Quitisoque, from the symmetrically pierced summit of which fall three beautiful streams of water; the Fura-Tena (man and woman in the Chibcha language), and the Boqueron de Peña Armada, which are two stupendous cuts or excavations made by the Rio Minero, the second 10,650 ft. deep; and the natural tunnel of the Rio Suarez.-From Costa Rica to Venezuela, Colombia abounds in auriferous alluvions of great extent. There is hardly a state which does not possess in its soil more or less gold. It is claimed that Choco, Antioquia, Mariquita, Popayan, Pamplona, Ocaña, Bucaramanga, and other places are exceedingly rich in that metal. The auriferous The auriferous sands of Antioquia, according to M. Dufrénoy, afford results very nearly coinciding with those of California. Small diamonds are found with the gold, and in the same district the sulphate of mercury is abundant. Choco produces platinum, and Muzo emeralds; and in various parts of the country are mines of silver, copper, lead, iron, quicksilver, coal (in Bogotá, Cali, Soata, Chiriqui, &c.), amethysts, and other varieties of rare and valuable stones and minerals. The great coal bed of Cali, it is believed, extends beyond the Cordilleras to the Pacific. On the table lands of Bogotá, Tuquerres, Tunja, and Pamplona rock salt abounds, and lime, sulphur, alum, magnesia, asphaltum, and other valuable minerals exist in inexhaustible quantities in various parts of the republic. The climate of Colombia presents remarkable contrasts and nearly every variety of temperature. The lower part of the valley of the Magdalena is oppressed with almost tropical heat. The waters of the river are lukewarm, and at Honda, 1,000 ft. above the level of the sea, stones exposed to the sun's rays are too hot to place the hand upon. The mortality in this region is great, more especially among children. At Cartagena, as well as on the W. coast, the yellow fever is endemic, and the lowlands are dangerous to both Europeans and the people of the highlands. On the plateaus the air is salubrious and the temperature is that of perpetual spring. On the plain of Bogotá, which is 8,000 ft. above the sea, the thermometer ranges from 55° to 70° F., and the rain in the wet season falls but a few hours daily in the afternoon. The summits of the Cordilleras are usually covered with mists, and

the tops of the highest with perpetual snow. In the forests of Darien the rain falls almost unceasingly, and the gulf of Choco is seldom free from violent storms.-The flora combines almost all the products of the tropical, intertropical, and temperate zones. Within a single day's journey one may encounter the four seasons of the year and the vegetable peculiarities of all these zones. Rice, cotton, tobacco, sugar cane, and all tropical fruits grow along the coast; and the elevated plains yield maize, wheat, potatoes, and all the European fruits. The vast forests, yet imperfectly explored, abound with valuable productions. În Popayan the cinchona grows to perfection, and the sides of the mountains of Tolima are clothed to an elevation of 8,500 ft. with wax palms 200 ft. high. Besides these are found the pitayo, cedar, balsam of Tolu, vanilla, lignum vitæ, mahogany, caoutchouc, and the three trees perhaps most precious of all, the albataque, the vine of the cross, and the arisa, all remarkable specifics, the first against inflammation, the second for stanching effusions of blood, and the third for instantaneously stopping bleeding at the nose. Notwithstanding the luxuriance of the vegetation, the species are not intermingled. Each kind occupies some tract of its own, where it flourishes to the almost total exclusion of others.--Colombia abounds in animal life. The rivers swarm with alligators and wild fowl, and myriads of flies render life almost unendurable in the lowlands. Boa constrictors and poisonous serpents, the jaguar, the puma, and others of the feline tribe, and monkeys of many species abound in the tropical forests. The sloth, armadillo, anteater, and cavy also inhabit the lower forests; deer of different kinds are found at all heights; and the bear and marmot approach the limits of perpetual snow. At the height of about 3,000 ft. the alligator and boa constrictor disappear, and the tapir, the largest quadruped of the country, is seen. Popular tradition reports the existence in the vast unexplored forests of the panchique and mancarita, enormous quadrupeds never seen alive, but whose tracks, those of the first round, and those of the second marked with three great toes, have been often observed in the mountains of Coconuco in Popayan, and at Piedecuesta in Santander. It is affirmed that on the line of the tracks of the panchique the branches of the trees have been broken off to the height of 15 feet. The condor soars above the snow line of the Andes, and the forests are alive with innumerable varieties of insects and birds. Among these the changeable butterfly of Muzo is without a rival in its beauty, and the tropial is not excelled by the nightingale for its song. The bird of Velez, called sol y luna (sun and moon), has the image of both those luminaries on its wings. On the coast turtles and fish abound, and pearls and coral are found in the bay of Panama and near Cartagena. The population of Colombia is made up of

whites, mostly of Spanish origin, negroes, and Indians, and their mixtures. The whites constitute rather less than 1,000,000 of the total population, and the mestizos about the same number. Of mulattoes and civilized Indians, there are about 300,000 each, and the remainder is made up of negroes, zambos, and savage Indians numbering 120,000. The better classes of the people are distinguished for intelligence, festive humor, hospitality, and generous impulses. The educated classes rank among the first in South America for their scientific and literary culture. The people of Socorro and Antioquia are laborious and enterprising. The women of Antioquia, Bogotá, Ocaña, and other cities are celebrated by travellers for their grace and beauty. In Bogotá the French fashions predominate, and the inhabitants incline to European manners. Gaming is universal, and cock fighting is a favorite sport. On the coast the people, from the climate, are wanting in energy and color. The llaneros on the plains wear nothing but a shirt and light drawers, a straw hat, and bark sandals. They ride without a saddle, and live almost entirely on beef. The language is generally Spanish, excepting among the uncivilized Indians, who speak their own aboriginal tongues.-Industry is generally backward. Agriculture is mostly in the hands of the converted Indians, who cultivate the soil in the rudest manner, and the reclaimed land bears but a small proportion to the whole. The cereals are raised to some extent on the elevated plains, and rice, cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, cacao, and tropical fruits along the coast. On the eastern plains, toward the Orinoco, the inhabitants, who are chiefly creoles, are devoted almost exclusively to the raising of horses, mules, and cattle. For want of both capital and labor, the mining industry is vastly inferior to the mineral resources of the country. The chief silver works are those of Santa Ana, near Bogotá. Gold abounds in the entire Atlantic region, and, in spite of the rude machinery used, the quantity obtained is far from insignificant; the washings on all the tributaries of the Atrato are extremely productive, but less so E. of the Cordilleras. The emerald mines of Muzo, in the valley of Tunja, near Bogotá, are worked carelessly, but produce enough to meet the constant demand from Europe. The pearl fisheries are mostly neglected. Coal, copper, and iron are mined to some extent near Bogotá; and the salt mines at Cipaquirá, about 30 m. N. E. of Bogotá, produce enough to supply the neighboring states. Manufactures can scarcely be said to exist, native industry not sufficing to supply the wants of the country. Almost all manufactured articles in use are imported. In Bogotá and some other towns cotton and woollen cloths, carpets, straw hats, soap, and leather are produced, but not to any great extent.-The commerce of Colombia, though fast increasing, is still far below the capabilities of the country. The exports consist mainly of cotton, cinchona,

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One half the trade is carried on through the isthmus, the exports and imports of which in transitu average each about $50,000,000. The direct exports and the imports for 1873 show an increase of 75 per cent. as compared with those of 1870, chiefly due to a larger number of steamship lines to Colon (Aspinwall). About 75 per cent. of the goods exported through that port go to the United States. Most of the Colombian commodities are known in England only as Venezuelan (Maracaibo) productions. Steamers run weekly from Panama to the principal Pacific ports S., and to San Francisco and intermediate ports N.; to Aspinwall there are American steamers bi-monthly, and several British and French lines; and in 1873 an American line was established between New York, Santa Marta, Sabanilla, and Cartagena. The annual shipping movements in all the principal ports comprise about 1,200 vessels, steam and sail, with an aggregate of 300,000 tons. Steamers ply on the Magdalena, but the navigation of this river is growing more and more difficult each year. The internal carrying trade is done by bongos (large canoes) on the rivers, and by mules. Many new roads are in process of construction; but much has yet to be done in this respect. Besides the railways from Panama to Aspinwall (48 m.), and from Sabanilla to Barranquilla (18 m.), both in prosperous operation, proposals were made in 1873 to build other lines to the extent of 800 m., to be completed in 12 years, at a nominal cost of $85,000,000. Some surveying and grading have already been performed (January, 1874). With the telegraphs on the two railways now running, and that from Bogotá to La Mesa, it is expected that at the end of 1874 1,500 m. of wires will be established. A submarine cable from Aspinwall to Kingston, Jamaica, has not been in use for over a year.-Bogotá, Medellin, and some of the other state capitals have each a university or collegiate school, besides seminaries, and scientific, normal, and primary schools. Large appropriations were made by congress in 1873 for the establishment of new schools, so that Colombia will soon be in the matter of primary instruction among the most advanced of the

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