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Granting that the process of intellectual ad- drill upon them, singly and in simple combinavancement may be slower, speech is so great a tions of two or three, without regard to their boon as amply to compensate for the sacrifice, meaning or want of it. When a perfect combeing the readiest and quickest mode of com- mand of the vocal organs has been obtained, munication, and the only one that can com- longer combinations are taught, and finally pletely restore a deaf mute to society. For sentences gradually increasing in length. The the manual method it is claimed that the ab- order in which sounds are introduced, and the sence of hearing not merely prevents any rela- time when meanings are associated with them, tion between thought and speech, but even vary according to the peculiarities of the purenders speech unnatural. Words are not the pil and the theories of the teacher. It is imuniversal and absolute medium of thought. portant to have daily exercises, however short, Nature can use, and in the deaf demands, visi- and to keep the pupil fresh and interested. ble forms for its embodiment. They instinc- With the semi-deaf and semi-mute, the task is tively express themselves in gestures, and appre- rather to correct the erroneous and indistinct hend new signs more readily than new words. enunciation they are liable to fall into. The Signs are addressed directly to the perceptive pupil has to rely much upon observation of powers, and are thus the readiest and best the teacher's vocal movements; a little inmeans of promoting intellectual progress, even strument, somewhat like a paper-folder, has in the study of verbal language. The language been used by some to assist in bringing the of signs is also capable of conveying the high- tongue into the proper position; and diagrams est and most abstract ideas. All its deficien- and charts of the various positions of the vocal cies are fully made up by writing and dactyl- organs have been published by Baker of Donology, which are superior to lip-reading in caster and Vaïsse of Paris, among others. A precision of conveying words. To articula- new and valuable auxiliary has been found in tion there are grave practical objections. It the system of "visible speech or universal can be acquired so as to be rendered ser-alphabetics, invented by A. M. Bell of London, viceable only by the semi-deaf, the semi-mute, and a very small proportion of deaf mutes. Even these cannot control their voices, which are generally monotonous and often disagree- | able, and unintelligible except to persons very familiar with them. To impart it requires much more time and labor, and an increased staff of teachers. Lip-reading is practicable only under very favorable conditions; the speaker must be very near, in a good light, and must enunciate slowly and distinctly; and even then it is little more than guesswork. It is becoming more and more the general opinion that, on the one hand, articulation is not merely practicable but desirable with a certain proportion, and that, on the other hand, with the rest signs may be used to greater advantage. Hence a combined method is now most in favor. But instructors differ greatly in their estimate of this proportion, and hence in the prominence they accord to one or the other method. Hirsch claims that 99 in 100 can acquire articulation to a serviceable extent. Hill estimates that 85 in 100 can converse with persons familiar with them, of whom 62 can do so easily, and 11 can converse readily with strangers on ordinary topics. Tarra considers only 30 per cent. likely to profit by instruction in articulation; and H. P. Peet, only 15 per cent. The English and French languages have been found more difficult than German, Danish, and Swedish, and the Slavic languages. In teaching articulation, it is of prime importance that the pupil perceive the difference between his own silent and vocalized breath; this perception Amman styled "the hearing of the deaf," and to produce it, the first great mystery of his art. The elementary sounds are then taught, six weeks at least being usually devoted to

now in Boston. This consists of a series of symbols representing in outline the position of the organs in uttering every possible sound. Any language whatever can thus be phonetically written in characters which indicate both the pronunciation and how to produce it. Though not originally devised for the benefit of the deaf, it was soon introduced into Miss. Hull's private school in London, and is now in use in the institutions at Boston, Northampton, Hartford, Washington, and Jacksonville. Mr. Bell has also devised a system of notation to indicate pitch and tone, which, in the few cases where it has yet been tried, has proved capable of guiding to a correct and pleasing modulation. The language of signs is based upon the gestures devised by uneducated deaf mutes, which have been found strikingly similar to those employed by various savage tribes. They are: pointing to objects, expressions of real or simulated emotions, imitations of actions, and representation with the hands of the shape or use of articles. For convenience, the pantomime required fully to express a conception is often reduced to a single sign, by seizing upon some striking characteristic, such as the horns of a cow, or the feeling of the pulse by a physician. Such abridgments are often contrived by the deaf themselves. Ordinary objects, qualities, actions, and relations are readily represented; abstract ideas offer more difficulty. The simpler class are expressed by reference to some object having the quality intended; thus, touching the lips stands for redness. For a higher class recourse is had to rhetorical figures; thus, justice is represented by imitating with the hands a pair of scales evenly balanced. Many words are indicated by their initial letter in the manual alphabet, combined with some gesture;

begin with a copious vocabulary; others frame | and one object of it is to qualify deaf mutes sentences as soon as a few words have been better to be themselves teachers of the deaf learned; others begin with sentences and deduce the component words. Names of visible objects, their obvious properties, numerals, personal pronouns, and verbs of action are most readily apprehended. The adjectives first taught are usually those of size and color; the prepositions, those of locality. The simple tenses are exemplified by calling attention to a succession of actions. Much use is made of contrast. A considerable step has been taken when the pupil can unite two sentences or clauses, and another when he comprehends the variation of mood and voice. A child of ordinary intelligence, beginning at the age of 10 or 12, will learn in one year to write simple sentences concerning every-day affairs. During the first two or three years, works prepared expressly for the deaf and dumb are used principally; after that, text books prepared for hearing children are taken. Want of means is the only reason why so few advanced works for the deaf and dumb are published. Elementary manuals have been published in America by H. B. Peet, Jacobs, Keep, and J. S. Hutton, and in England by Baker, Hopper, Scott, Patterson, and others. Peet's and Jacobs's are the most extensive and popular. In most of the United States the legal term of attendance is seven years, but the actual average is five. In this time, however, the pupil usually acquires a command of written language and acquaintance with the common school branches sufficient for the ordinary demands of life. The higher classes pursue the studies usually taught in high schools; Latin, French, geometry, and surveying are taught to those who exhibit special aptitude. The college at Washington is designed to afford a course equivalent to that pursued in other colleges;

and dumb. The chief modification of the course is in giving more time to English and less to classics and mathematics. It has been objected to special institutions for both the deaf and the blind, that their peculiarities are intensified by aggregation. Arrowsmith in England, in 1817, Graser in Germany, about 1830, and more recently Blanchet of Paris, proposed to educate the deaf and dumb in common schools, along with their hearing brothers and sisters. The experiment has been tried in Ireland, Prussia, France, and Belgium ; everywhere it has been found that its inconveniences and disadvantages far counterbalance any attending the other system. This, however, was in the elementary instruction. In a few recent cases deaf persons have with benefit and credit attended the higher schools for the hearing.-The legal status of the deaf and dumb who were unable to read and write was, under the Roman law and the codes founded upon it, practically that of the insane and the idiotic. The English common law early recognized that intelligence sufficient for the enjoyment of all civil rights, and for credibility and accountability in courts of law, might be manifested otherwise than by the use of verbal language. The principle is now settled by numerous precedents, both in England and in the United States, that the degree of intelligence in a deaf mute is to be decided as a matter of fact, and any means whereby he can express himself intelligibly, directly or through an interpreter, is admissible. A will made by a deaf and dumb lady, at an advanced age, and after she had become blind, was lately declared valid in England. It is only in the case of the totally uneducated that there is any question

of accountability. The most exhaustive es- | acknowledged as the leader in that assembly. says on this subject are by C. Guyot of Gro- But his efforts to bring about a satisfactory soningen, and H. P. Peet and his son I. L. Peet lution of the national difficulties on the basis of New York. Berthier of Paris is editing the of the laws of 1848 failed, and in August, 1861, Code Napoléon with reference to the wants the diet was dissolved. A new diet was conof the deaf and dumb.-The number of the voked late in 1865, but was prorogued shortly deaf and dumb who have attained eminence is before the outbreak of the Austrian war with very small, and all or nearly all have been Prussia in 1866. After its disastrous terminasemi-mutes. Q. Pedius and Navarrete, Mas- tion the national demands of Hungary, as forsieu and Clerc, Pélissier, Berthier, and Kruse mulated by Deák, then again representative have already been mentioned. In Great Britain from Pesth, were readily assented to by Beust, we note Walter Geikie, S. R. A. (1795–1837), the new chief minister of Francis Joseph, called "the Teniers of Scotland;" John Kitto, and thus the dualistic basis was created on D.D. (1804-'54), editor of the "Biblical Cyclo- which the Austro-Hungarian empire now rests. pædia" and author of "Daily Bible Illustra- (See AUSTRIA, and HUNGARY.) Deák, who had tions;" and Mr. Lowe, a conveyancer and throughout evinced equal firmness and moderchamber counsel in London. In France, Baron ation, now became the leader of the majority Eugène de Montbret (1785-1847) was distin- in the diet, which was favorable to the Hunguished as a linguist. In America, James Nack garian cabinet formed by Andrássy, though has published several volumes of poems; John occasionally opposing it upon minor points. R. Burnet has written many contributions to He has since continued nearly in the same atperiodicals of a high class; the late Albert New- titude toward the cabinets of Lónyay (formed sam was a leading lithographic artist; John in 1871) and Szlávy (in 1872), having been sucCarlin is known both as a miniature painter cessively reëlected by the city of Pesth. and as a writer; and Francis McDonnell has attained some reputation as a sculptor. Mrs. Mary Toles Peet has written numerous fugitive poems, and Miss Laura C. Redden has made her nom de plume of "Howard Glyndon" familiar to magazine readers.

DEÁK, Ferencz, a Hungarian statesman, born at Söjtör, in the county of Zala, Oct. 17, 1803. He was educated at Comorn and Raab, studied law, was elected to the diet of 1832-'6, and became the leader of the opposition. He was reëlected to the diet of 1839-'40, and to that of 1843-'4, but refused to serve in the latter on account of the instruction given to the representatives to vote against the proposed equality of taxation, to which Deák with some 200 other nobles now voluntarily subjected himself. Failing health compelled him to decline the offered election to the diet of 1847-'8; but in the spring of 1848, after the decisive victory gained by the opposition, under the lead of Kossuth, over the Austrian government, he accepted the portfolio of justice in the Batthyányi ministry. While holding this office he attempted a complete judicial reform, but the scheme was interrupted by the war. The ministry resigning on the outbreak of open hostilities against Austria, he retired to private life. In December he was a member of the unsuccessful deputation sent to the camp of Windischgrätz for the negotiation of peace, was arrested by that commander, but soon released, and took up his abode at Pesth. After rejecting various overtures made him by the Vienna cabinet with the object of gaining him over as a mediator between the dynasty and the Hungarian people, he reappeared in the public arena toward the close of 1860, after the reverses in Italy and financial embarrassments had compelled Francis Joseph to promise the restoration of the national liberties. Elected by the city of Pesth to the diet of 1861, he was

DEAL, a parliamentary and municipal borough and market town of Kent, England, on the North sea, between the N. and S. Forelands, 8 m. N. E. of Dover, and 66 m. E. S. E. of London; pop. in 1871, 8,004. It is divided into Upper and Lower Deal; the former, which comprises the residences of the wealthy classes, was a small fishing village in the time of Henry VIII.; the latter, built on three streets, close to the beach and parallel with the coast, is entirely of modern date, and has most of the business and the bulk of the population. The town contains a spacious esplanade, a public library and reading room, a custom house, a naval yard and storehouse, barracks, a town hall, a jail, baths, gas works, and a nautical school. At its S. end is a fortress built by Henry VIII. in 1539, and on the north is Sandown castle, now used as a coast guard station. There is no harbor, but vessels of all dimensions ride safely in a spacious roadstead called the Downs, between the shore and the Goodwin sands. The latter lie directly opposite the town, and are the scene of frequent shipwrecks. There is little or no foreign commerce, but a brisk trade in naval supplies is carried on with vessels which, at times to the number of 400 or 500, anchor in the Downs while waiting for favorable winds. The principal industries are boat building and sail making; but many of the inhabitants are fishermen, and the skill and daring of the Deal boatmen are almost proverbial. Deal was annexed to the cinque ports in the 13th century, as a member of Sandwich. Adjoining Deal on the south is the suburban village of Walmer, a resort for sea bathing, where is situated Walmer castle, the official residence of the warden of the cinque ports.

DEAN (Lat. decanus, chief of ten; old Fr. deien; mod. Fr. doyen), a title given to certain persons who, in ecclesiastical or lay bodies, are first either in dignity or in seniority. The