1 09 5 03 The Roman gold coin, or aureus, weighed £ s. d. $ cts. generally double the denarius; its value, according to the proportion of gold to silver mentioned by Pliny, was.. According to the proportion that now obtains among us. According to the decuple proportion mentioned by Livy and Julius Pollux... According to the proportion mentioned by Tacitus, by which the aureus exchanged for 25 denarii, its value was... 0 12 11 3 13.2 tributions to the "Church Review," he has published "A Theological Commonplace 1 4 3 5 89.6 Book; "The Bible and Apocrypha in Paragraphs and Parallelisms" (2 vols., 1834); "Remarks on Mr. Norton's Statement of Reasons (1834); "Townsend's Chronological Bible " (2 vols., 1837); "Puritanism, a Churchman's Defence against its Aspersions" (1844); "Lectures on the Early History of Christianity in England" (1859); and a report on the "Standard Prayer Book" (1868). 0 16 1 3 91-5 An English writer says of these tables of ancient coins that they are constructed on the hypothesis that the consular denarii weighed by Greaves were of the same purity as English standard silver, and that no subsequent diminution was made either in their weight or fineness. The conclusion derived from such data, though differing in degree, are of the same character as those which we should arrive at if, in estimating the value of the pound sterling during the last 100 years, we took for granted that it contained a pound weight of standard silver, as in the period from the conquest to the reign of Edward I." COIRE, or Chur (Romansch, Cuera; anc. Curia Rhætorum), a town of Switzerland, capital of the canton of Grisons, 59 m. S. E. of Zürich; pop. in 1870, 7,552. It occupies a picturesque site at the mouth of the defile of the Plessur, about a mile from the Rhine, and is the principal depot on the route from Italy into Switzerland and western Germany by the Splügen and Bernardino passes. The church of St. Lucius and the bishop's palace are curious old buildings, portions of which date back to the 8th century or earlier. There are also a town hall, public library, Catholic seminary, and cantonal schools. It is the seat of probably the oldest bishopric in Switzerland, dating from the 5th century. The Romansh, a corruption of Latin, is spoken here, and a newspaper is published in that tongue. It is the birthplace of the painter Angelica Kauffman. COIT, Thomas Winthrop, an American clergyman, born in New London, Conn., June 28, 1803. He graduated at Yale college in 1821, entered the ministry of the Episcopal church, and became rector of St. Peter's church, Salem, Mass., in 1827, and two years later rector of Christ's church, Cambridge. In 1834 he was elected president of Transylvania university, Lexington, Ky. This office he resigned in 1839, and became rector of Trinity church, New Rochelle, N. Y., which position he held for about ten years. In 1854 he was elected professor of ecclesiastical history in Berkeley divinity school, Middletown, Conn., the duties of which post he discharged in connection with the rectorship of St. Paul's church, Troy, N. Y. He resigned the rectorship in 1872, and has been since chiefly occupied in the duties of his professorship. Dr. Coit ranks among the foremost of living scholars in the Episcopal church, and is the author of several able works in defence of its doctrines and position. Besides a large number of occasional addresses and sermons, and con COJUTEPEC, or Cojutepeque, a town of San Salvador, Central America, in the department of Cuscatlan, a few miles N. of a lake of the same name, and about 15 m. E. of San Salvador; pop. 15,000. It was the seat of government from 1854 to 1858, San Salvador, the capital, having been destroyed by an earthquake in the former year. The country around it is volcanic. Lake Cojutepec, sometimes called Ilopango, is 12 m. long and 5 m. broad. It is surrounded by high abrupt hills, and is probably the crater of an ancient volcano. It receives no tributary streams, but has a small outlet flowing through a deep ravine into the Rio Jiboa, near the base of the volcano of San Vicente. After a gale its waters assume a dark greenish hue and exhale a disagreeable sulphurous odor, and dead fish are cast ashore in large numbers. COKE, the solid product left behind when the volatile matters are expelled by distillation from bituminous coal. There are two kinds: gas coke, obtained from the retorts of gas works after the gases have been separated; and oven coke, which is made in ovens or pits, and which is considered by manufacturers as the only true coke, gas coke being merely cinder. Oven or pit coke is made upon a large scale at mines of bituminous coal, for the purpose in part of saving the fine refuse coal by converting it into a valuable fuel, and in part of converting the lump coal into a form better adapted for metallurgic operations, and for the use of locomotives when the flame and smoke of bituminous coal would be objectionable, as upon underground railways and in populous streets. It was formerly the opinion of some engineers that the calorific qualities of bituminous coal exist undiminished in the coke, notwithstanding that the gases expelled in the process of making the coke possess also a considerable heating power. Mr. Josiah Parker states, in vol. ii. of the "Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers," that he has "found that 75 lbs. of coke, produced from 100 lbs. of coal, evaporated as much water as 100 lbs. of the self-same coal." He also cites the experience of Mr. Apsley Pellatt in his glass furnaces, which were especially well adapted for showing the relative calorific value of coke and coal, provision being made in them for the full combustion of the volatile products of the coal. Of late years, however, after much discussion upon the subject, bituminous coal has come into use in place of coke upon the prin cipal railway lines in England, the use of the latter being retained only when flame and smoke require to be avoided. Coke has never been used on American railroads, and now that locomotives are so constructed that crude coal can be burned with facility and economy, the occasion will probably never arise. In consequence of its freedom from sulphur, coke is much better adapted to metallurgic processes, and therefore special attention has been directed in Europe, not only to the best methods of preparing it, but to the selection of that kind of coal which is best adapted to the purpose; and it has been found in practice preferable to incur considerable expense to procure it of the best quality, some companies even preferring to obtain it from England rather than use the cheaper but inferior qualities made from the coals of France and Belgium. The cause of the superiority of the English coke is attributed to the coal beds of England containing but few seams of slate interstratified with the coal; so that this is obtained clear of the impurities which in the French and Belgian coals add largely to the proportion of ash, and render it necessary to subject the coal to processes of washing and sorting before coking. Iron pyrites is the principal objectionable material in coal for melting metals, and to get rid of it is the chief problem of the coke maker. A protracted application of heat expels a great part of the sulphur, with the formation of bisulphide of carbon and carburet of iron. The bisulphide of carbon, being volatile, passes off, and the carburet of iron which remains does no injury unless there is silica present, which is not the case in good coking coal. In the north of England it has been found that when the coal contains much pyrites, if it is first treated with a very strong brine the elimination of the sulphur is very greatly facilitated. The tendency to vitrifaction possessed by clays and lime salts renders these substances objectionable in coke, and therefore good coking coal is only found in certain districts. (See COAL.)-Two methods of coking are in use: one in ovens constructed for the purpose, and the other in large open heaps, upon the ground. The ovens are built of fire brick or stone of various sizes, and frequently arranged several together in one stack, in which case dimensions of 12 ft. square and 10 ft. high are found most convenient. They are arched over at the top, a hole being left for the exit of the gases, and another for the introduction of the coal, closed by an iron door in front. About two tons of coal are introduced through the latter, filling the oven to the springing of the arch, and leaving room above for the coal to swell. The charge is ignited by the heat left in the walls by the process just previously completed. Air is allowed to enter in proper quantity at the lower door, and the gases escape at the top. In 24 hours the air holes below are closed, and for 12 hours more the gases pass out at the top. The upper hole is then | closed with a slab of stone or iron and covered with sand, and left for 12 hours more to partially cool down the charge. After this the door below is opened, the coke taken out quickly, quenched with water, and carried off in iron wheelbarrows. Where it is an object to save the coal tar, the ovens are provided with a flue at the top, through which the volatile products are conducted into a receptacle in which the liquid matters are condensed. The product of bituminous coal in coke, gas, and tar varies with its quality. As it approaches anthracite in quality, the yield of coke is large and of gas small, while the reverse is the case with the fat or highly bituminous coals. From 50 to 75 per cent. is the general range of the yield of coke. Upon some of the railroads in England the size of the ovens is stated to be 30 ft. square, and the charges about 8 tons each, spread in a thickness of about 4 ft. The duration of the process is 96 hours. With the same coals and ovens, by making the charges lighter and increasing the quantity of air admitted, and thus raising the temperature, so as to complete the process in 48, 24, or even 12 hours, the coke will be obtained lighter and more friable according as it may be desired. It has been found that the higher the heat of the oven the larger the yield of coke. This fact seemed for a long time anomalous, but is explained by well known chemical laws. When coal is melted, its hydrogen and carbon combine in the form of bicarburetted hydrogen, which in passing up through the red-hot coal above is decomposed into solid carbon and light carburetted hydrogen. Thus one half of the carbon of the gas is saved. The principle is illustrated by passing bicarburetted hydrogen through a red-hot tube, which after a while will become filled with a solid carbonaceous deposit.-Coking in the open heap is the most common practice at the mines of bituminous coal of the United States, and this is the oldest method. The coal is piled up in long ranges, extending sometimes 200 ft. in length, with a width of 12 ft. at the base, and a height of 6 ft. The piles are made so that along the whole length an air passage extends through the centre on the ground. The largest lumps are placed in the middle portion, and smaller and smaller pieces toward the outside. Stakes are set up at intervals along the central line of the heap, which reach down to the base; when the pile is completed, these are taken out, and the passages they leave serve for the introduction of burning coals to fire the heap along its whole length. Whenever the thick black smoke and flame cease in any portion, and this begins to show appearance of ashes, the fire is kept down by the application of coke dust or ashes; and this goes on until the whole heap is thus covered. It is then left for a few days to cool. Portions exposed to the full action of the wind require, as in the process of making charcoal, a thicker cover of dust or ashes to check the consumption of the product. When sufficiently cool, the coke ་ COKE, Sir Edward, an English jurist, born at Mileham, Norfolk, Feb. 1, 1552, died at Stoke Pogis, Buckinghamshire, Sept. 3, 1633. Nothing of particular interest is related of his school days at the grammar school in Norwich, or in the university of Cambridge. He left Cambridge without taking a degree, and at the age of 20 commenced the study of law at an inn of chancery, where he spent a year in acquiring a knowledge of the forms of writs and proceed is drawn out. The process is not an economi- | is then cut by the shaft; this is a thin layer of cal one, much of the inside coal being always half-coked coal. Twenty feet below this is consumed to waste before the inner portions another coal bed of the usual bituminous comhave been coked. A method has been adopted position, its structure unaltered. at the Clyde iron works in Scotland, by which a part of this waste is obviated. A mound is built up of a circular form around a central chimney of brick, which may be 3 ft. square at the base and rise 3 or 4 ft. from the ground. Openings of the size of a brick are left at intervals in its sides, for the passage of the gases, and from the lowest of these the coal around is so piled that flues extend through it to the circumference of the heap. The diameter of the mound may be 20 ft., and its ashes 4 ft., suffi-ings in courts, and then entered upon the study cient with the cover of ashes and cinders to reach above the top of the chimney. The heap is lighted by burning coals thrown into the chimney, from which the flames reach through the aperture. In four or five days, when the mound has become thoroughly on fire, the apertures on the outside and the top of the chimney are closed with plates and ashes, and the heap is left to cool for three days, after which the coke is drawn out. It is the practice now in Europe to utilize the heat produced in making coke. At some chemical works salt is made by using the waste heat; in blast furnaces the air has been heated from the same source, and in many others the heat from the burning of the escaping gases is used to increase the heat of the coking oven itself. Many of these are in use on the continent of Europe.-A species of coke called "charred coal" is now used in place of charcoal in the manufacture of tin plates. It is made by spreading fine coal on the red-hot floor of a reverberatory furnace to the depth of four or five inches. Much gas is given off and ebullition takes place, producing a spongy mass which is removed after an hour. COKE, Natural. At the coal mines of the lias formation, on both sides of the James river, and near Richmond, Va., beds of natu- | ral coke of good workable quality are met with, interstratified with the slates, sandstones, fire clay, and coal. On the N. side of the river is a bed 5 ft. thick, which lies slightly inclined toward the west. Several vertical shafts cut it, the deepest about 207 ft. below the surface. The coke is of a nearly uniform character, and is heavier than common coke, vesicular in texture, and of a dull black col or. The volatile ingredients of the coal are almost wholly wanting, and the coke does not differ in its properties and appearance from much of the more compact artificial varieties. Twenty feet above the coke, the agent which effected this change, and also altered the beds of fire clay and slate, is seen in an intercalated layer of trap rock of 15 to 30 ft. in thickness. Immediately beneath the trap is a bed of carbonaceous fire clay and cinder 5 ft. thick, baked and hardened by the action of the trap. Under the coke bed is another stratum of indurated fire clay, and beneath this one of coal slates 20 ft. thick. Another carbonaceous bed > of general jurisprudence in the Inner Temple. He was called to the bar a year before the expiration of the time prescribed for legal studies (at that time seven years), in 1578, and was soon after appointed reader (lecturer) of Lyon's Inn (an inn of chancery), which office he held three years, and so distinguished himself by his lectures that he gained much repute for legal learning. Within that time he rose to the highest rank in the profession by his argument in Shelley's case, the most celebrated case relating to real estate which is to be found in the English reports. He was thenceforth employed in most of the important cases in Westminster, was successively elected recorder of Coventry, then of Norwich, and lastly of London, and was appointed reader (law professor) of the Inner Temple. In 1592 he was, at the instance of Lord Burleigh, appointed solicitor general, and the following year he was returned to parliament as the representative of Norfolk, and was chosen speaker of the house. In 1594, the office of attorney general becoming vacant, Coke expected to succeed to it in regular course, but was unexpectedly met by a formidable claimant, Francis Bacon, backed by the influence of the earl of Essex. Queen Elizabeth resisted the solicitation of her favorite, and appointed Coke; but it was the commencement of bitter hostility between the rivals, which, with alternating success, was ultimately disastrous to both. In 1598 Coke lost his first wife, to whom he had been married 16 years, and within four months married Lady Hatton, a wealthy young widow, who within a year bore to him a daughter, but refused to take his name, being always known as Lady Hatton. In 1600 he published the first of the 11 parts of his reports. The other parts were published in the following reign. The preface is characteristic of the author. He proposes no diminution of the student's labor by any facility which his reports are to furnish. "My advice to the reader," he says, "is that in reading of these or any new reports, he neglect not in any case the reading of the old books of years reported in former ages, for assuredly out of the old fields must spring and grow the new corn." In his subsequent works he often reiterates the same advice. He did not encourage the use of abridgments, except Wales, and of the lord president of the North. Complaint having been made to the king of these prohibitions, and the judges having been summoned before the council, Coke justified the judges; and in like manner, when the question came up as to the king's prerogative to impose penalties and otherwise alter laws by proclamation, and the opinions of the judges were demanded by the king for the purpose of enforcing the power claimed, Coke resisted, and finally got the rest of the judges to concur in an answer that a proclamation was no law. The effect of this bold opposition to arbitrary power can hardly be overestimated. It at least checked abuses, and it led to investigation as to the limit imposed by law. Although Coke had but little turn for abstract reasoning about natural rights, he was inflexible in maintaining such rights as had been recognized by law. In 1613 Coke was removed from the office of chief justice of the common pleas to the chief justiceship of the king's bench. The change was intended partly as a penalty for his conduct in the matters before referred to, but chiefly to favor the advancement of Bacon, who wished the place of attorney general, and Hobart, who then held the office, was willing to exchange for the chief justiceship of the common pleas, but not of the king's bench. The reluctance of Coke to leave the common pleas may be explained by the fact that far the larger part of the civil business of the kingdom was transacted in that court, it having exclusive jurisdiction of all cases relating to real property. It appears from a letter of Bacon to the king that it was designed to put Coke upon his good behavior, and to prepare the way for his final dismissal from office if he should fail to become conformable to the views of the court. He was in fact dismissed three years afterward, but in the mean time, with the certainty of losing his place by persistence in the course of judicial independence which he had heretofore pursued, he fearlessly resisted the encroachment of royal prerogative, and the corrupt attempts of court minions to pervert his administration of the law to improper purposes. Two memorable instances occurred of Coke's inflexibility in maintaining what he believed to be right, although exceedingly obnoxious to the king: his contest with the court of chancery, and his re for reference to the original cases, but insists | trary proceedings of the lord president of upon the study of the cases themselves. The trial of the earls of Essex and Southampton for high treason, which occurred early in 1601, brought out harsh traits in the character of Coke. His statement of facts in opening the case was exaggerated, and his manner abusive, and this was continued throughout the trial. In the first year of King James, the trial of Sir Walter Raleigh upon a charge of high treason for a conspiracy to place the lady Arabella Stuart on the throne again exhibited Coke (who still remained attorney general) as a public prosecutor, and on this occasion to arrogance and vituperation he added an unfair attempt to convict the prisoner upon evidence which he knew to be insufficient, and in fact inadmissible. The advancing favor of Bacon with King James now exasperated the former enmity of Coke against him. The literary renown of Bacon, and the personal regard shown for him by Elizabeth, although it had not procured him official station other than the honorary one of queen's counsel, had excited the jealousy of Coke, and sharp encounters had taken place between him and Bacon. As attorney general Coke rendered efficient service in the unravelling of the gunpowder plot and the prosecution of the parties concerned. On the trial Coke opened the case to the jury at enormous, length, interlarding his diatribe against the prisoners with quaint conceits. To Sir Everard Digby, one of the prisoners, who confessed the charge, but prayed the mercy of the king as to the mode of death, and also in behalf of his family, Coke answered that he must not look to the king to be honored in the manner of his death, but was rather to admire the moderation of the king in that for so important a crime no new torture answerable thereto had been devised to be inflicted on him. The trial of Garnett, the superior of the Jesuits, who was implicated in the same plot, called forth still greater effort on the part of Coke to show his zeal for the king and severity to the prisoner.-In 1606 Coke was appointed chief justice of the common pleas, and Bacon in 1607 solicitor general. From the time he entered upon his office he exhibited an integrity and independence in striking contrast with his former violation of private rights in his zeal to serve the crown. Indeed, the difference is so great that we hardly recognize Coke the chief justice as the same per-sistance of the interference of the king in the son with Coke the attorney general. Thus he granted writs of prohibition to restrain the court of high commission from issuing process for the arrest of parties complained against, which practice, recently introduced in place of citation, Coke maintained to be contrary to Magna Charta. He resisted the pretension of King James to the right of sitting in person to hear causes, which was a device suggested for the purpose of getting rid of prohibition and appeal. Prohibitions were also issued from the common pleas to check the arbi matter of the commendams. The court of chancery had exercised the power of correcting judgments of other courts. The limit of this power had not been well defined. There were many cases where, by the rigid practice at common law, great injustice was done, and relief could be had only by the equitable administration of chancery; but some of the chancellors had proceeded as if they had a general right to review the judgments of all other courts. Coke wholly denied the authority of the court as thus claimed. He and his associate judges declared it to be an indictable | the murderers of Sir Thomas Overbury gave offence to question a judgment of the king's further offence to James, and he probably inbench or common pleas; and an effort was tended the removal of Coke upon the first famade to get an indictment against the parties, vorable opportunity. This intention was no solicitors, and officers of the court of chancery, doubt precipitated by the enmity of the new in two cases in which injunctions had been favorite Villiers, who had been thwarted by the granted by the chancellor against judgments chief justice in a corrupt attempt at the dispoat law. But as it appeared that gross fraud sition of a lucrative clerkship in the king's had been committed in the obtaining of these bench. The removal was, however, put upon judgments, the grand jury could not be per- very different grounds. Among the charges suaded to bring in a bill. The proceeding hav- which he was required to answer before the ing attracted public attention, the king ap- council were: 1, the alleged concealment of a pointed commissioners to inquire into the sub- bond belonging to the crown; 2, his misconject of dispute. The report of the commis- duct in the dispute with the chancellor respectsioners sustained the proceeding of the chan- ing injunctions; 3, his disrespectful conduct to cellor. Proceedings were thereupon instituted the king in the matter of the commendams. A in the star chamber against the private parties few days afterward he was again called before concerned in resisting the authority of the the council, when sentence was pronounced chancellor. The conduct of Coke on this oc- that he be suspended from the council and from casion has been generally censured; but there his judicial functions till the king's pleasure can be no doubt that it had the effect of estab- should be further known, and in the mean lishing with more precision the rule by which time that he should revise his books of reports, the interposition of the court of chancery wherein it was alleged that " many extravagant should be regulated. The case as to the com- and exorbitant opinions were set down for mendams was this: In a suit against the bish-good law." After the summer vacation he was op of Lichfield and Coventry respecting a bene- again cited before the privy council to answer fice, the defendant pleaded that he held it in as to revision of errors in his reports, when he commendam, which was an appointment by the made a specification, showing that there were not king in certain cases until a new incumbent more errors in his 11 books of reports, containcould be regularly appointed. The questioning 500 cases, than could be found in a few cases was involved as to the right of the king to make such grants. Upon being advised of the discussion, the king sent a message to Coke signifying his pleasure that all proceedings should be stayed till the judges should have a conference with his majesty on the subject. A meeting of all the judges having been held for consultation, it was resolved by them that the court ought to proceed as though they had received no notice, which was accordingly done, and a memorial signed by the 12 judges was sent to the king, in which they say: "We hold it our duty to inform your majesty that our oath is in these express words, that in case any letter come to us contrary to law, we do nothing therefore but certify your majesty thereof, and go forth to do the law notwithstanding the same.' We have advisedly considered the said letter of Mr. Attorney, and with one consent do hold the same to be contrary to law, and such as we could not yield to the same by oath." A sharp response followed from the king, ordering the judges to proceed no further till his coming in town. He then called them before him, and commented severely upon their course of proceeding and the form of their letter; upon which the judges kneeled and craved pardon. But Coke, though he expressed sorrow for any error of form, still persisted in defending the substantial right of what he had done. The king himself seems to have been impressed by the noble bearing of the chief justice, for the court was permitted to proceed in the cause of the bishop, which was finally decided against him.-The active measures taken by Coke for the conviction of in Plowden. The whole charge was indeed frivolous; but a supersedeas nevertheless issued, removing him from his office (1616), and Montague was appointed in his place. Not long after his disgrace Coke offered his daughter in marriage to Sir John Villiers, brother of the duke of Buckingham, the royal favorite. She was only 14 years of age, but was a rich heiress, as the estate of her mother, Lady Hatton, was entailed upon her, and she also had an expectancy from her father's immense wealth. The match had been sought by Villiers, who was poor, and had been rejected by Coke while chief justice. He determined on availing himself of it now for the purpose of recovering from his disgrace and humbling Bacon, who was now his open enemy. Lady Hatton, who was not on good terms with her husband, and had not been consulted, refused consent, and carried off her daughter to a place of concealment. Coke, having ascertained where they had fled, pursued, broke open the house, and took his daughter away. The mother appealed to the privy council. Bacon, who had been appointed lord keeper, warmly supported her, and proceedings were instituted in the star chamber against Coke. The king, however, who was then in Scotland, sharply reproved the lord keeper, and on his return the parties were so far reconciled that the marriage took place. Coke was restored to his place in the privy council (1617), but received no other appointment, except temporarily as one of the commissioners of the treasury while the office of lord treasurer was vacant. Bacon, on the other hand, entirely recovered a good understanding with the king, |