of a dark brown hue. The Indians in the tor- most exposed to the influence of the sun among rid zone, who inhabit the most elevated plains the white races, and even the offspring of many of the Cordilleras of the Andes, and those who who possess a tawny color, are as fair at birth are under lat. 45° S., have as coppery a com- as those of the most delicately complexioned plexion as those who under a burning climate parentage. The children of the Moors are born cultivate bananas in the narrowest and deepest white, and acquire the complexion of their valleys of the equinoctial region.” "Do we parents in after years. Russell says that the not in fact behold," says Virey, "the tawny inhabitants of the country in the vicinage of Hungarian dwelling for ages under the same par- Aleppo are naturally of a fair complexion; allel and in the same country with the whitest and among the women in the upper ranks of nations of Europe, and the red Peruvian, the life this fair skin is preserved through life, brown Malay, the nearly white Abyssinian, in while the inhabitants of that country are genthe very zones which the blackest people in the erally tinged with a shade which, although universe inhabit? The natives of Van Diemen's lighter than the negro, is deeper than that Land are black, while Europeans of the corre- of the Telingan.-The division of mankind by sponding northern latitudes are white; and the Blumenbach into the five varieties of Caucasian, Malabars, in the most burning climate, are no Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and Malay, browner than the Siberians." The tempera- is, among other characteristics, largely founded ture of a place, however, depends not only on on difference in complexion. The Caucasian its latitude, but on its elevation and its meteoro- is for the most part characterized by a white logical conditions. For these reasons the lines skin and red cheeks; the hair of a nut-brown, of equal temperature do not always agree with running on the one hand into yellow, and on the same degrees of latitude, nor are they the other into black, soft, long, and undulating, measured by the widest range in the ther- The Mongolian has a skin of an olive color, and mometer. Now, although the elevation of tem- black, stiff, straight, and sparing hair. The perature in Africa may not at any one time be Ethiopian has a black skin, and black curly greater than is sometimes observed in Ameri- hair. The American possesses a skin of a ca, yet there can be no doubt that the annual copper color, with black, stiff, straight hair. amount of heat far exceeds that found in the The Malay has a tawny skin, and black, soft, tropical latitudes of the western continent. In curled hair. (See ETHNOLOGY.) Dr. Pickermeasuring the effect of any particular climate ing, who has made very extensive observaupon complexion, therefore, it is necessary not tions upon different races, adopts a new classionly to determine its absolute degree of lati- fication. "I have seen in all," he remarks, tude, but also to ascertain what other causes “eleven races of men, and though I am hardly are in operation tending to bestow a deeper prepared to fix a positive limit to their number, or lighter shade upon the human countenance. I confess, after having visited so many differIt is a well known fact that the luxuriance of ent parts of the globe, that I am at a loss where vegetation is not so much dependent on the to look for others. They may be enumerated intensity as on the mean quantity of heat; and conveniently enough in the order of complexthe same law which operates in effecting a ion, beginning with the lightest. a. White: distribution of plants over the surface of the 1, Arabian; 2, Abyssinian. b. Brown: 3, Monglobe, independent of well defined lines of lati-golian; 4, Hottentot; 5, Malay. c. Blackish tude, likewise exercises its influence in determining the intensity of shade observable among the different races of mankind. Those nations most exposed to the weather and furthest removed from civilization are, as a general rule, the darkest. Thus the South sea islanders, who seem to be of one family, vary in complexion according to the degree of their civilization. The Australians, who are savages, are black; The New Zealanders, half civilized, are tawny; the Friendly islanders are frequently of an olive color; while the people of Tahiti and the Society islands, who are the furthest advanced in civilization, are often possessed of a light complexion and flowing ringlets, and sometimes are considered really beautiful. The same fact is observable among persons of different degrees of cultivation in countries having complete and absolute divisions of rank. Thus not only are the nobility of France, Spain, Italy, Germany, and England easily distinguished from the peasantry, but the intermediate classes are as readily determined. An interesting fact connected with this subject is, that the children of those

brown: 6, Papuan; 7, Negrillo; 8, Indian, or Telingan; 9, Ethiopian. d. Black: 10, Australian; 11, Negro." This classification of Dr. Pickering is here introduced to show the importance of complexion as a characteristic of the different varieties of the human race. It will be observed that the color of the hair appears to be in a great degree connected with that of the skin; and it may be added that the color of the eyes likewise bears the same relation. Light hair is the usual accompaniment of a white and thin skin, while dark hair and a dark complexion are usually associated together.-Among all races there is a class termed albinos, whose bodies appear to be destitute of coloring matter, and who, besides a creamywhite skin, have white hair and pale, rosecolored eyes, owing to the absence of the pigmentum nigrum from the sclerotic coat of the eye. This renders them unusually sensitive to light. Werfer, in his description of those he saw among the inhabitants of the isthmus of Darien, says: "They see not well in the sun, poring in the clearest day, their eyes being

sive perception of the universe as a whole. His second position is, that in this advance it proceeds in a regular hierarchical order, from the simple to the complex, or from the most ele

the school divided; Enfantin, Bazard, Augus- | generalization after another, to a comprehentin Thierry, Chevalier, and others, proceeding to organize a system of propagation for the opinions of their master, and Comte taking to his own course. In 1826 he was arrested in his speculations by what he denominates "amentary relations of numbers to the highest cerebral crisis," but which his physicians de- and deepest complications of society and life. scribed as a brain fever, terminating in insanity. This order of the sciences he arranges as folHe soon recovered, and devoted the rest of his lows: 1, mathematics, the most general and life to teaching mathematics, at first as a pro- simple of all, dealing only with numbers and fessor in the polytechnic school, and to the magnitudes; 2, astronomy, the application of gestation of his new schemes of thought. In the principles of mathematics to the phenom1830 he began the publication of his chief work, ena of the celestial sphere; 3, the application the Cours de philosophie positive, in six large of mathematics and astronomy to the phenomvolumes, which was not completed till 1842. ena of the terrestrial sphere, or general physics, It was filled with novel speculations, but at- including heat, light, optics, electricity, &c.; tracted little or no attention, and it was not 4, chemistry, the science of the phenomena of till 16 years after the publication of the first the interior of bodies or of molecular changes; volume that it was noticed in any leading re- 5, biology, the science of the phenomena of inview. In 1843 Comte published a Traité élé- dividually organized being, or vegetable and mentaire de géométrie analytique, and in 1854 animal life; 6, sociology, the science of the a Traité d'astronomie populaire, both works phenomena of corporate or social life, which, of a strictly scientific cast. Meanwhile he had presupposing and containing all the former, is quarrelled with his brother professors, the re- the queen of all the sciences. Having finally sult of which was that he lost his official em- reached his goal, or sociology, he undertakes, ployment. He then supported himself by pri- as his third position, a demonstration of the vate teaching, by Sunday lectures to a small statics and the dynamics of social life, or of the audience, and by the voluntary contributions fundamental principles of order and liberty. of a little knot of disciples. În 1848 a Dis- The first element of order is the family; the cours sur l'ensemble du positivisme appeared, second, the community, composed not of inrecapitulating his doctrine as a whole, and giv- dividuals but of families, and coöperating to a ing a brief outline of what it proposed for the certain extent in their employment; and the future. But it was only a prelude to a work third, the government or state. Liberty is printed in 1851-'4, called the Système de poli- the effect of this harmonious organization, and tique positive (4 vols.), which gave the final progress the development of it, by means of view of his doctrine. A short Catéchisme the conquest-1, of material nature; 2, of the positiviste, published in 1852, is a mere sum lower propensities by the higher intellectual mary exposition of the teachings of the larger faculties; and lastly, of the selfish passions by work. In the interval between the publica- the social affections. To this point, the mere tion of the Cours and the Système he fell in superiority of the social affections, Comte had love with a married woman; and his affection gone in his first work; but after his love exfor her, intensified by her sudden death, con- perience, and upon a maturer consideration of vinced him that the old criticism of Saint-Simon the nature and objects of life, he saw that a was true, and that the religious or sentimental deeper question remained untouched. It was side of human nature was not to be despised. that of religion, which he conceived to be the He died of hypertrophy of the heart, and was complete harmony of human existence, indiburied in the cemetery of Père la Chaise.-vidual and collective, or the universal unity Comte's scheme of thought is so immense that no attempt to describe it in an abridgment can do justice to it; yet a few words in regard to it are necessary. His first position is that the human mind, in its progress historically and individually, passes through three stages of development: 1, the theological, in which all the phenomena of nature are imputed to the active agency of the gods; 2, the metaphysical, in which the gods are made to give place to certain abstract entities and quiddities called "nature," "harmony," " "number," &c.; and 3, the positive or scientific, in which it is discerned that man can know nothing of causes, and is only able to refer phenomena to their general laws of existence or succession. Arrived at this stage, science is born, and knowledge, no longer baffled by the inscrutable or misled by the imaginary, advances, through one

of all existences in one Great Being, whom he calls Humanity. Religion, at first spontaneous, dissipates itself in fetishism and polytheism ; next, inspired, it lifts its thoughts to the vague abstract unity of God; and finally, revealed or demonstrated, it finds its object in a true, living, and ever active being, which is humanity. This alone is the genuine end and object of all worship, and to this every effort of the good man should converge. But, as eminent individuals, Moses, Socrates, Mohammed, &c., are manifestations of the Grand Being, it is not improper to pay to them a high yet qualified respect. Accordingly, Comte arranged the formula of a worship of humanity by means of homages and festivals to its most illustrious representatives. He even reformed the calendar in view of it, and called the months after the names of illustrious benefactors, and the

weeks after others.-See "Comte's Philosophy | Waterville college, and was married to Mr. of the Sciences," by G. H. Lewes (London, Conant in 1830. She was a frequent contribu1853); The Positive Philosophy of Auguste tor to literary and religious periodicals, and in Comte," by Harriet Martineau (1854); Cours 1838 became editor of the "Mother's Journal," de philosophie positive, with a preface by E. a monthly periodical. In 1844 she translated Littré (6 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1864); Notice sur Lea, or the Baptism in the Jordan," from l'œuvre et sur la vie d'Auguste Comte, by Dr. the German of Strauss, the evangelical court Robinet (2d ed., 1864); Auguste Comte et la preacher of Berlin. In 1850-'52 she translated philosophie positive, by E. Littré (1864); and the commentaries of Neander on the Epistle "Comte and Positivism," by J. S. Mill (1865). of Paul to the Philippians, on the Epistle of COMUS, in the later Greek mythology, the James, and on the first Epistle of John. In god of festive mirth. He is represented as a 1855 she wrote "The Earnest Man," a biowinged youth, intoxicated and languid after graphical sketch of the missionary Judson; feasting, his head sunk on his breast, his legs and in 1857 translated from the German "The crossed, his countenance flushed with wine. In New England Theocracy," a sketch of the one hand he feebly grasps a hunting spear, in early ecclesiastical history of New England, by the other an inverted torch. Uhden. Her most elaborate work is "The English Bible; a History of the Translation of the Holy Scriptures into the English Tongue ” (New York, 1856).

CONANT. I. Thomas Jefferson, an American Biblical scholar, born at Brandon, Vt., Dec. 13, 1802. He graduated at Middlebury college in 1823, pursued philological studies for two years in New York, was for a short time tutor in Columbian college at Washington, and afterward professor of languages in Waterville college, Maine. He resigned this post in 1833, and took up his residence near Boston, where he could more advantageously prosecute his | studies in the oriental languages. He had become convinced of the necessity of a fresh translation of the Scriptures, which should fully represent the original text; and to this his life has been chiefly devoted. In 1835 he accepted the appointment of professor of Biblical literature and criticism in the Baptist theological seminary at Hamilton, N. Y., which he held till 1850, although two of the intervening years were spent in Europe, mainly in Halle and Berlin. While professor at Hamilton he translated the Hebrew grammar of Gesenius, with the additions of Rödiger, a work which has become the standard text book in America and Great Britain. In 1850 he became professor of Biblical literature in the university of Rochester, N. Y., but resigned in 1857, and removed to Brooklyn, to devote himself exclusively to the labor of Biblical revision, in the service of the American Bible union. His work in this department consists of revised versions, with critical and explanatory notes, of "The Book of Job" (1857), "The Gospel by Matthew" (1860), “The Book of Genesis" (1868), "The Book of Psalms" (1868; also, with some additional notes, in the American edition of Lange's "Commentary," 1872), and "The Book of Proverbs" (1872). In 1860 he published "BarriÇew: its Meaning and Use philologically and historically investigated." He is now (1873) a member of the Old Testament company of the American committee, cöoperating with the committee of the convocation of Canterbury, England, in the revision of the authorized English version of the Bible. II. Hannah Chaplin, wife of the preceding, born at Danvers, Mass., in 1809, died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 18, 1865. She was the daughter of the Rev. Jeremiah Chaplin, president of

CONCAN, North and South, a maritime tract of the Bombay presidency, British India, extending from the Portuguese settlement of Goa on the south to the river Damaun on the north, bounded W. by the Indian ocean and E. by the Ghauts; area, about 1,000 sq. m.; pop. about 1,500,000. The surface is rugged, and the mountains on the E. frontier attain in some places an elevation of 4,700 ft. Deep ravines and thick forests occupy the E. portion, whence the surface slopes by degrees toward the seacoast, where the mean elevation is not more than 100 ft. Part of the country is fertile, populous, and susceptible of high cultivation. One of the most remarkable characteristics of the climate is the violence of the monsoon rains, the mean annual fall in some places amounting to 239 inches. There are numerous bays and harbors, which for ages afforded secure retreats to pirates. The Great Mogul maintained a fleet for the purpose of checking them, the Portuguese frequently attacked them, and from the year 1756 numerous expeditions from Bombay were despatched against them by the British; but the piratical system was not wholly suppressed till 1812. When the Hindoos conquered the country they gave it to a tribe of Brahmans, from whom it was wrested by the Mohammedan kings of Bejapoor. In the 17th century it passed into the possession of Sevajee, the founder of the Mahratta empire. Toward the close of the same century the pirate chief Conajee Angria established a kingdom here, extending 120 m. along the coast, and inland as far as the Ghauts. In 1756 most of this territory was restored to the peishwa by the united British and Mahratta forces. North Concan, which is inhabited by wild uncivilized tribes called Bheels, was once held by the Portuguese. The territory was ceded to Great Britain in 1817. South Concan passed under British rule, partly by cession, partly by conquest, in 1818.

CONCENTAINA, a town of Spain, in the province and 28 m. N. of the city of Alicante; pop. about 6,600. It has manufactures of linen,