flames and hundreds of prisoners marching in the fields. . . .

It wont get much in the press but we had close to ninety thousand men in action twenty thousand bigger than Gettysburg.

We had seventeen battalions of Corps and Army Artillery in addition to the divisional artillery 552 guns, 300 planes 400 tanks some of them 8 & 9 inch.

Of course we will get a hell of a counter attack at dawn and I hope kill more Germans. Peace is going to be a hell of a let down. . .

I love you George.

Hitler, surprising his foes, scraped together twenty divisions and launched a desperate offensive in the Ardennes Forest on December 16, 1944. While the Germans did not stop the Allies, they did create a "bulge" in the advancing line and captured nine thousand Americans in the process. Sgt. Murray Shapiro, U.S. Army, described his escape in his memoirs:

The next thing I knew the Germans were charging in with bayonets. . . . I jammed my helmet back on my head, grabbed my rifle, and began a powerful wiggle on my back to and THROUGH the hedgerow barrier. ... My steel helmet shielded my head and eyes. . . when I reached the other side, my gloves were torn to shreds, every brass button on my great coat was gone, and parts of the great coat were also shreaded.

The enemy did not even try to pierce the hedgerow, but began a frantic race to run around it. Since they had about 75 to 100 yards to go to reach a break, I had a head start. . . . I continued down the slope, hearing their heavy boots getting closer. . . . I knew they could pick me off with rifle fire even if the could not catch me, so . . . I dived into a small depression partially filled with mountain sage, and quickly covered my self up with all the leaves and pine needles I could find. . . . The first line in the advance quickly caught up to me, and passed me, uneventfully, except that one German stepped on a finger as he passed. The pain was minimal considering what might have happened. . . .

By January, however, the American soldiers had won the Battle of the Bulge, using up the last of Hitler's reserves. The Allies drove into the Rhineland, and German resistance crumbled appreciably. The Army Air Corps was now bombing Berlin. On February 28, 1st Lt. Earle C. Cheek wrote home:

Dearest Doris, I'm two thirds through now. Our last mission will probably be the high point of my combat tour. The entire 8th Air Force (all three divisions) went to Berlin in the greatest raid of the war and we led the 2nd Air Division (all of the Liberators) on that mission. We dropped over 2000

tons of high explosives and half a million incendiaries on the city. Berlin is heavily defended but it wasn't quite as tough as I thought it would be. They did put up an awfully lot of flak.

Only ten more missions to go. If I'm not able to finish in March it won't take much longer. . . . Love, Earle

[WESTERN UNION to Mrs. Emma P. Cheek, April 14, 1945:

THE SECRETARY OF WAR DESIRED ME TO EXPRESS HIS DEEPEST REGRET THAT YOUR SON 1ST LT CHEEK EARL C HAS BEEN MISSING IN ACTION OVER GERMANY SINCE 24 MARCH 45]

The spring of 1945 brought with it a series of shocks. On April 12, President Roosevelt died. Under Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal wrote in his diary that day:

At 6:10 p.m. the Vice President called the Cabinet to order and said: "It is my sad duty to report that the president died 5:48. Mrs. Roosevelt gave me this news, and in saying so she remarked that 'he died like a soldier.' I shall only say that I will try to carry on as I know he would have wanted me and all of us to do. I should like all of you to remain in your Cabinet posts, and I shall count on you for all the help I can get. . . ."

The journey into German territory also brought the Allies face to face with the horror of the concentration camps. M. Sgt. Lloyd Self, U.S. Army, wrote in his diary of his visit to a concentration camp:

In the Pacific, the Japanese islands fell one by one: Tarawa, Eniwetok, the Solomons, Saipan, Iwo Jima. Others were left isolated to starve and surrender, as at Truk. The whole development of amphibious operations, and the highly sophisticated doctrine and technology to support it, was a peculiarly American contribution to the art of war. After World War I, military theorists had concluded an amphibious landing could not succeed; after World War II, they decided it could not be stopped.

On Iwo Jima, Lt. General Kuribayashi wrote to his family:

Because of my constant awareness of the tides of war, no single day has ever passed without anxiety and tension. It is very likely that our enemy, who plans to invade Saipan and Oomiya Island, will attack us soon in their expedition to invade Japan....

I constantly think about our final destiny here except while I am sleeping. But, I may think about it even in my sleep, for I have had dreams these days. . . .

Although I am not certain about the best place to

evacuate around Tokyo, it seems most likely that Tokyo will be subject to daily air-raids within a month or so after our place here is invaded by the enemy. The best place for you to evacuate seems to be Shinshyu.... The war has advanced to the point that we need to think of all these things...

I am sending you my battlefield allowance for the months of June and July. I heard you would get them after September, though I am not certain if I will still be alive by then. . . . To my wife. From your husband. . . .

On March 3 of the following year, Pfc Peter Hand, U.S. Marines, was able to tell his parents:

I am sitting on top of my foxhole, something I wouldn't do when I first came here, while I am writing this letter. Old glory can be seen from here flying on top of Mt. Surabachi (I think that is how it is spelt) and it makes one proud because it was put there under fire and it is going to stay here. The happy day will be when it flies over the whole island; just 750 miles from Tokyo. Air field no. 1 is no more than 200 yards in back of me. To say I wasn't scared when we came in would be quite a lie. . . . When this is all over is the only time I will feel safe.

In April 1945 the Allies poured into Germany; the Russians neared the gates of Berlin itself. Hitler and his entourage moved into the Bunker beneath the Reichs Chancellery. On April 28, the Führer married his mistress, Eva Braun, and dictated his "private will" and his "political testament." He blamed the war on the Jews, the invasion of Poland on England, and extolled his virtues in service of the German people. In his closing remarks he asks the army to continue fighting:

May it be one day a part of the code of honor of the German officer as it is already in our Navy-that the surrender of a district of a town is impossible, and that in this respect the leader above all should give a shining example of faithful performance of duty unto death.

Two days later, preferring "death to cowardly withdrawal or even capitulation," Hitler and his wife committed suicide. He left the world, as he had once promised, in flames.

On May 7, Gen. Alfred Jodl signed an unconditional surrender document. The surrender was formally ratified in Berlin on May 8; the fighting ended officially at 11:01 P.M. that evening. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Harry Truman declared May 8, 1945, to be "Victory in Europe" Day, and the celebrations began. From Paris, Cpl. Robert Turner, U.S. Army, wrote his girlfriend:

All hell broke loose. . . . Oh my gosh it was just

like a riot, never saw that many people even in New York. Traffic was stopped and lights went on that had been out for five years. I went to the park Trocodero, which is beautiful and really got kissed good and proper. Every girl there must have kissed me. Ooh Lala what a variety of lipstick. Whew What a time to be here. And this kept up for two more days. Bye the bye, I was swimming in Trocodero park at midnight on "VE" day. There must've been a hundred GIs, French & Limey soldiers in the water with thousands of people watching.

On July 26, 1945, the United States, Russia, and the United Kingdom issued the Postdam Declaration, warning of "prompt and utter destruction" if Japan did not surrender unconditionally. It did not.

The first atomic bomb, nicknamed "Little Boy," was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945; as many as eighty thousand people were killed instantly. Three days later, its mate, "Fat Boy," was dropped on Nagasaki; another thirtyfive thousand perished. The Japanese surrendered. On September 2, 1945, the formal instrument of surrender was signed aboard the USS Missouri, and the war was over.

On October 23, 1945, Technician Fourth Class Donald W. Cortright, U.S. Army, wrote to his family:

Dear Folks. . . After about 15 miles we came to the outskirts of Hiroshima. My God, oh my God! I'll never forget that sight as long as I shall live. It is a large city, much larger than Kune. It probably contains around 30 square miles of houses. It is on a large plain between the mountains & the sea. At the very outskirts, tiles were torn off, windows blown out, a house down here & there, etc. Shortly we were to the center of the city. Everywhere was the most horrible, terrifying, complete---devestation that you can imagine. You can't imagine it!! I can't use enough superlatives to describe that awful scene to you. Around us lie about (conservative) six square miles of nothingness. Just rubble (tiles, china, etc.) piled about two feet high.

As a security measure, letters written during World War II were censored, and the keeping of diaries was forbidden by military order. Although some of the materials did have parts of sentences removed, American ingenuity apparently had prevailed. American servicemen quickly learned the means by which letters could escape the censors' pens.

As to the forbidden diaries, an interesting analysis of the situation came from Roger H. Tower, a marine who kept a diary. Transcribing his journal soon after the war, he added these

comments:

could they not write about it and then carefully preserve it for their progeny? They offer a personal glimpse into history and reflect the wisdom gained at great price by the men and women who experienced both the horror and exhilaration of war. Chief Radioman Walter Germann, U.S. Navy, wrote to his young son on September 1, the day before the Japanese signed the surrender document:

When you grow a little older you may think war to be a great adventure-take it from me it's the most horrible thing ever done by man.

Their words expressed all facets of the war, from the joy of victory and the relief of escape to the first shock of battle and the misery of defeat. While the ingenuity required to evade censors and to keep forbidden diaries may not have been appreciated fifty years ago, subsequent generations can be thankful for it. These men. and women have left not only for their families, but also for the American public, a truly great legacy.

The exhibition is accompanied by a catalog, World War II: Personal Accounts-Pearl Harbor to V-J Day, edited by curator Gary A. Yarrington. The 436-page catalog contains 354 illustrations

and an overview of the Second World War by James L. Stokesbury, author and professor of history at Acadia University in Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada. The catalog may be obtained from the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum, the libraries and museums hosting the exhibition, and both the Museum Shop and the Publications Office in the National Archives Building. It is also available by mail for $25 plus $3 shipping and handling from the National Archives Trust Fund, Dept. P193, P.O. Box 100793, Atlanta, GA 30384. VISA and MasterCard are accepted; please provide the account number, expiration date, and cardholder's signature. Credit card orders may be placed by calling 1-800-788-6282, Monday through Friday, 8:00 A.M. to 4:30 P.M. EST.

To receive a free copy of World War II Resources from the National Archives and its National Audiovisual Center, please write to the National Archives Fulfillment Center (NEDC), 8700 Edgeworth Drive, Capitol Heights, MD 20743.

Special thanks to Janel E. McCarthy, a Prologue staff editor, who compiled and did additional research for this article, and to James Stokesbury, whose historical essay in the Personal Accounts exhibition catalog provided much of the background information.

fifty

years ago...

APRIL 18, 1943

Americans Down Yamamoto's Plane

ON APRIL 18, 1943, the work of American cryptanalysts showed the way to what has been called "the most dramatic event in the Pacific war-the death of Admiral Yamamoto." On April 14, the Fleet Radio Unit, Pacific (FRUPac) decoded a signal sent out by the commander in chief of the Eighth Japanese Air Fleet detailing a tour of inspection by Admiral Yamamoto to the Rabaul area. The signal revealed that on April 18, Admiral Yamamoto would leave Rabaul at 6 A.M. in a medium attack bomber escorted by six fighter planes to inspect Japanese bases close to the southeastern tip of Bougainville Island. Deluded by overly optimistic reports of recent raids, Yamamoto planned to congratulate and inspire the participants.

When code breakers informed Admiral Nimitz, commander in chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet, of the planned inspection, initial concerns focused on the benefits of keeping Yamamoto in command. Throughout history, it has been beneficial to have an enemy commander whose methods have grown familiar and predictable. But a more important concern was the possibility of "tipping off" the Japanese that their naval codes had been broken due to the accuracy of the interception.

The permission and agreement of Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox and President Roosevelt to carry out the mission was sought and granted. A strike force of eighteen P-38s was dispatched from Henderson Field and intercepted Yamamoto's plane over Bougainville Island on the morning of April 18. Capt. T. G. Lanphier fired the shots that brought Yamamoto's plane crashing into the jungle below and succeeded in eliminating Japan's most revered military leader.

The death of Admiral Yamamoto marked a symbolic episode in the history

of the Pacific war. Yamamoto was the driving force behind the development of Japan's naval strength and the architect responsible for the attack on Pearl Harbor. For both sides it marked the beginning of the end. The loss of this brilliant leader demoralized the Japanese navy, and no Japanese naval commander with equal distinction would emerge. American forces turned with greater assurance from defense to counterattack.

MARCH-MAY 1943

The Battle of the Atlantic

WINSTON CHURCHILL wrote, "The only thing that ever really frightened me during the war was the U-boat peril." Initially, the Battle of the Atlantic was Germany's attempt to cut British supply lines

in order to force Britain to surrender from lack of food and other essentials. As the war progressed, it became more important to the Allies, offensively, to keep the transatlantic convoy route open so they could build up enough military strength in Britain to invade Europe.

The climax of the Battle of the Atlantic came in the winter of 1942-1943, when the Germans came close to cutting Britain's North Atlantic lifeline. During March 1943, German U-boats had sunk ninety-seven Allied merchant ships within the first twenty days. In the last six months of 1942 the Allies had lost fourteen million tons of merchant ship

ping and had replaced less than half of it with new construction. This sum was more than had been sunk in the years 1939, 1940, and 1941 combined.

Germany's success, or "the Happy Times" as the Germans called it, relied upon Adm. Karl Dönitz's skillful leadership of the Reich's submarine fleet and the ability to exploit the Allies' weaknesses. The Allies' main defense against U-boat attacks was to sail in convoys. The lack of escorts, especially long-range escorts, forced the convoys to disperse and sail independently on the open sea, making them vulnerable to attack. In addition, the Allies suffered from a shortage of long-range aircraft for reconnaissance, and they had no radar. Their underwater detection device, ASDIC, was limited by the effects of bad weather and variations in water temperature.

During the long autumn and winter nights, Admiral Dönitz employed a new, devastatingly effective tactic called "wolfpacking." When a watchful U-boat or long-range aircraft sighted a convoy, it would report to Dönitz, who would then order all the U-boats in the area to converge upon the convoy and attack together at night. They would then shadow the convoy the following day and attack again during the second night. In World War I, submarine attacks occurred during the day from periscope depth. Attacks now came, unexpectedly, at night with the U-boats fully surfaced, rendering ASDIC totally useless.

The means to detect a surfaced submarine came with the discovery of centi