the minor premise. We then take this middle term and cast it into the universal affirmative form, "All natural monopolies." We now have the enthymeme with which we started out, reduced to the following syllogistic form:

Major Premise: All natural monopolies should be under Federal control.

Minor Premise: The railroads of the United States are a natural monopoly.

Conclusion: Therefore the railroads of the United States should be under Federal control.

This places clearly before us the deductive argument contained in the enthymeme. The syllogism is complete. The statements and terms are in their proper order and form, and the conclusion follows logically and inevitably from the premises. The form of the syllogism as it stands is therefore sound. If the two premises are true as a matter of fact, the conclusion must be true. Having determined these matters we now scrutinize each of the premises to see whether there is sufficient evidence to establish its truth. In the first place is it true that all natural monopolies should be under Federal control? What is a natural monopoly and why should it be under Federal control? All the sources of evidence must be searched for facts and statements of authority to substantiate this assertion. On this point opinions differ and the student must strive to find out the truth for himself. The other question which he must answer is, "Are the railroads of the United States a natural monopoly?" Here again the student must resort to the sources of evidence and by their aid answer the question in the affirmative or in the negative. If he can introduce enough evidence to prove that all natural monopolies in the United States should be under Federal control, and that the railroads are a natural monopoly, then he has completed a sound deductive argument in favor of the Federal control of railroads. This example ought to make clear

the method of reducing an enthymeme to the syllogistic form and the use to which this form may then be put.

Before leaving this subject a word of caution is necessary. Do not be confused by the form in which the enthymeme appears. Be sure that you have the real conclusion before you begin the construction of the rest of the syllogism. If you have failed to grasp what the enthymeme really says you are liable to get a wrong conclusion, and if you get a wrong conclusion the whole syllogism will be wrong. High sounding oratorical phrases and sentences are often confusing. Plainness is sometimes avoided by the speaker for the express purpose of concealing a fault in his argument. Even truth expressed in an unusual form is often misleading when we seek to reduce it to logical terms.

Some difficulty is usually experienced in reducing the beatitudes to the typical syllogistic form. For example, in reducing the enthymeme "Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God," the inexperienced student usually says that the conclusion is, "The blessed shall see God." A syllogism built upon this conclusion would appear as follows:

1. All those who are pure in heart shall see God. 2. The blessed are pure in heart.

3. Therefore the blessed shall see God.

This is a valid syllogism so far as the form is concerned; but it is of no use in throwing light upon the truth or falsity of the enthymeme, because the conclusion with which we started was not the true conclusion. This fault is fatal to the success of the argument, because after the syllogism is completed the student usually devotes his entire attention to proving the truth or falsity of the two premises and seldom gives any further attention to the conclusion.

Another erroneous statement of the conclusion expressed

in the above enthymeme is often given. It is "All those who are blessed shall see God." With this conclusion as a starting point we may construct the following syllogism:

I. All those who are blessed shall see God.

2. The pure in heart are blessed.

3. Therefore the pure in heart shall see God.

Again we have an invalid syllogism, because the conclusion from which we built it is not the true conclusion expressed in the enthymeme. Likewise there are many pitfalls for him who seeks to find the true meaning of any statement worded in a manner different from that in which we are accustomed to speak. The very difficulty, however, suggests the remedy. The student should always reduce the complicated statement to plain, ordinary, everyday English before attempting to find the conclusion. Reducing the enthymeme under consideration in this manner we have this simple statement, "The pure in heart are blessed because they shall see God." When we have put the statement in this form the real conclusion is readily seen. It is "The pure in heart are blessed." The remainder of the enthymeme is a statement of the reason why the pure in heart are blessed. With this as a basis we easily construct a valid syllogism.

1. All those who shall see God are blessed. 2. The pure in heart shall see God.

3. Therefore the pure in heart are blessed.

In closing this discussion it may be remarked that actual practice in the use of the deductive process as well as its application to argument is the only way in which real practical benefit may be derived from the knowledge here gained. This knowledge should not be reserved for use in the class room but should be used all the time and everywhere.

EXERCISES IN DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

I. Construct valid syllogisms showing the reasoning involved in each of the following enthymemes:

1. Since large corporations are gaining control of all industries a Federal incorporation law should be enacted.

2. As swollen fortunes are an evil, a progressive inheritance tax
should be enacted.

3. Commercial reciprocity between the United States and
Canada would be for the best interest of the United
States because it would reduce the high cost of living.
4. Because compulsory insurance has been successful in Ger-
many, it should be adopted in the United States.

5. On account of the growth of the divorce evil in the United
States, there should be a Federal law regulating marriage
and divorce.

6. There should be a state censorship of the stage because many immoral productions are being brought before the public.

7. "Blessed are the meek for they shall inherit the earth." II. Diagram, by means of circles, the syllogisms constructed under exercise I.

III. State three instances in which you have recently employed deductive argument.

IV. Write a deductive argument of not less than three hundred words.

CHAPTER III

ARGUMENT FROM CAUSAL RELATION

Arguments from causal relation are divided into three classes, I. Arguments from Effect to Cause, II. Arguments from Cause to Effect, and III. Arguments from Effect to Effect. All arguments from causal relation may be classed under one or the other of these divisions. These arguments are based upon a fact which human experience has demonstrated to be true-the fact that everything that occurs has back of it some adequate cause. In ancient times this belief in the laws of universal causation did not exist. Hence every occurrence of any importance was attributed to the commands of one of the numerous heathen gods. Instead of attributing the defeat of a general to poor management it was customary to say, "The gods decreed that this general should be defeated in war."

We still have remnants of this belief. These remnants consist of popular superstitions, such as the supposition that Friday is an unlucky day, that the number thirteen is unlucky, that the breaking of a looking glass portends bad luck, or that the sight of a black cat in the path is sure to be followed by some disaster. Modern science has abolished most of these superstitions by pointing out the fact upon which all causal relation arguments are based, viz.—that everything that happens has back of it a reasonable cause— or in other words, if a thing is true there must be some sufficient reason for it. So well has this fact been established that, with the exception of the less enlightened members of