social, and political life of the people, and in a restricted, and later sense, of growth in territory. Hence it is that legislation has dealt with great commercial affairs, with tariffs, with financial questions, with railroads, with the creation of new states, with the settlement of Alaska; with foreign questions; with the subject of a canal between the Atlantic and Pacific; with the regulation and control of the insular possessions, Hawaii, Porto Rico, and the Philippines. Thus it will be seen that since the close of the era of reconstruction, the United States has come to occupy a larger and larger place in the developing history of the world.

632. The President's Position.-The new president took high ground on all questions which came before him, and particularly in regard to civil service and finance,—questions which must be settled properly before the future of the nation can be assured. On both these, Hayes was opposed by a considerable faction in his own party. His "southern policy" still further displeased this faction. The Democrats meanwhile were his bitter foes, regarding him as a usurper in the presidency on account of the manner of his election. Consequently his administration was one of great difficulty.

633. Conciliation of the South: Hayes's Southern Policy.— Hayes believed that the only hope of healing the wounds created by the civil war lay in conciliating the south. Statesmen perceived that this conciliation was necessary; that a divided nation could not possibly attain a great destiny. In making up his cabinet Hayes held out the "olive branch of peace" by appointing as postmaster-general David M. Key, who was not only a Democrat but a southerner and an ex-confederate officer. He then consulted a number of southerners, and upon receiving from them a promise to uphold the national laws in the south, he withdrew the troops from South Carolina and Louisiana. As a consequence, for the first time since the war the south was solidly Democratic. Many Republicans bitterly opposed Hayes for bringing this about.

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634. Civil Service Reform.-His efforts on behalf of civil service reform were no less, unpopular with this class of Republicans. In spite of the refusal of congress to vote money for the execution of the law, the president bravely attempted to bring about a reform in the civil service. He refused to allow senators and representatives to select the federal officers in their states, and instructed the secretaries and other officials to make appointments to office solely for merit. Hayes's opponents were deeply offended, and the Republicans in the senate retaliated by refusing to consent to some of his nominations, especially that to the post of collector in New York. Defeated once, the president returned to the charge in 1879. He insisted on the removal of the collector and the naval officer at the port of New York, alleging that they had used their offices "to manage and control political affairs." The officials denied the charge, and a heated struggle between the president and the senate followed. The president finally won. He also removed the postmasters of New York and St. Louis, and introduced civil service reform in both places. Through these and like services President Hayes did much to advance the cause of civil service reform.

635. Resumption of Specie Payment-1879.-The act for resuming payments in coin, passed in 1875, was to go into effect January 1, 1879. The law had given rise to much. feeling. Many campaign speakers all through the campaign of 1876 denounced the policy, declaring that resumption was wrong, since it meant the end of paper money. Not a few Republicans adopted these views, and wished to give up the plan of resumption. With these Hayes did not agree. He was a firm advocate of resumption. Resumption, he said, was honest; it was best for our trade, especially our trade with other countries. Any other policy, he insisted, would destroy our reputation for honesty abroad and would be ruinous to thousands at home.

In his policy he was strongly supported by his able secre

tary of the treasury, John Sherman of Ohio. In preparation for the day of resumption the secretary began to collect coin, and by the sale of bonds procured $140,000,000, which were to be used in redeeming the greenbacks. Many prophesied that the attempt would be a failure; that when the day of resumption came, everyone would be eager to change his paper into specie, a panic would follow, and thousands would be ruined. Not a word of this came true. On January 1, 1879, the policy of resumption was successfully carried out. The treasury of the United States was open to pay coin for the greenbacks of all who presented them for payment, and yet scarcely anyone came. When people found that they could have coin for paper they did not want it. All that anyone wishes to know, in reference to specie, is that he can have it when he asks for it. From that day the paper money of the United States was as good as gold and silver. It had not been so before.

636. The Silver Question: The Bland-Allison Bill-1878.— Even before the paper money problem was settled, a new financial question came up-the silver question. Since 1873 silver had been getting less and less valuable, until in 1878 a silver dollar contained only about ninety cents' worth of silver. It was now held by many, that silver money should be made by law equal to gold, and that the United States should coin into dollars all silver that was offered to it. The law of 1873 making gold the only standard of value had made this impossible. If now a law was passed compelling people to take silver on an equality with gold, it was contended that all debtors would pay their debts in silver, and creditors would lose ten cents in every dollar owed to them. And further, as paper had driven coin out of circulation, so silver would drive out gold, and as it continued to get less valuable, prices would frequently go up and down once more, and there would be much loss. Hayes said this was a scheme to cheat. If people wanted a silver dollar to pass as a dollar, a dollar's worth of silver ought to be put into it.

Congress did not agree with the president. It tried a compromise. It would not pass a bill to have all silver coined and to be equal to gold in paying debts. But it did pass a bill ordering the secretary of the treasury to buy at least 2,000,000 ounces of silver every month and make silver dollars out of it. This was called the Bland-Allison Bill. The president vetoed it, and congress passed it over the veto in February, 1878. The coinage of silver being limited, and all debts not being payable in silver, the silver dollars passed in regular business transactions for as much as gold dollars, and thus the gold remained in the country in spite of prophecies to the contrary.

637. Colorado Admitted-1876: The Tenth Census-1880.Colorado was admitted into the union as the thirty-eighth state in 1876. Four years later the tenth census of the United States was taken, disclosing the fact that the United States had a total population of 50,155,783. Of this whole number of people it is interesting to note that there were included in it 6,580,793 colored persons, 104,565 Chinese, 148 Japanese, and 66,407 civilized Indians. During the ten years closing with 1880, nearly 3,000,000 immigrants arrived in the United States,-about a million of whom were from the British Islands.

638. The Presidential Election of 1880.-Hayes having stated in his letter of acceptance that he would not be a candidate for a second term, many Republicans wished to nominate General Grant for a third term. This gave rise to a cry of kingship, and alarmed many people with the idea of a life presidency. The third term idea was unpopular, and after a long struggle in the convention Grant failed to get the nomination. Instead, James A. Garfield was named. The Democrats nominated General Winfield S. Hancock. Garfield was elected by a vote in the electoral college of 214 votes to 155 cast for Hancock. Chester Alan Arthur was elected vice-president.

GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION

REPUBLICAN: 1881-1885

639. James Abram Garfield, twentieth president of the United States, was the son of poor parents. When he was still an infant his father died. As a boy Garfield worked hard for a living, being employed as a mule-driver on a canal. He had already shown exceptional brilliancy, learning to read at the age of three. Naturally he desired an education, and struggled to attain it. He attended Hiram College in Ohio and afterwards was graduated at Williams College in Massachusetts. He then became a professor in Hiram College, and later its president. Meanwhile he was admitted to the bar. In 1859 he was a senator in the Ohio legislature. When the war began he was made lieutenantcolonel, and rose to the rank of major-general. He was elected to the United States house of representatives in 1863 and remained there until 1881. In that year he was elected United States senator, but before he took his seat he was elected to the presidency. A few months after entering upon his office, he was assassinated.

President Garfield was born at Orange, Ohio, November 19, 1831, and died at Elberon, New Jersey, September 19, 1881.

640. The Blaine and Conkling Political Quarrel.-When Garfield became president, he appointed James G. Blaine secretary of state, an act which offended Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York, who personally disliked Blaine. A struggle followed between the Blaine and Conkling factions of the Republican party. The president appointed one of Conkling's enemies to the collectorship of the port of New York, which still further offended Conkling, who now insisted that it had become a time-honored custom for a president to consult the senators from any state before making appointments in that state. As a public protest against what they felt to be a slight, Conkling and Senator Platt resigned and asked to be reëlected at once by the