ruary, 1865, abolishing slavery forever. So the colored man was not to be a slave. But was he to have privileges and powers such as the white man possessed? Was he to vote? Was he to hold office? Or was he to be kept in a condition of inferiority, though free?

594. Beginning of Reconstruction.-President Lincoln had early taken up the problem of reconstruction. He believed that the president could restore the states to the union without the interference of congress, and acted on that supposition. In December, 1863, he issued a proclamation granting pardon and restoring their property to those who gave up secession and swore to defend the constitution and all the laws and proclamations emancipating the slaves. Only the most prominent leaders were refused these conditions. Lincoln then said that when one-tenth of the qualified citizens who had voted in 1860 should take the oath, and set up state governments, the president would recognize these as the lawful governments of the states. Thus reconstruction would be achieved, and by the president alone. Under this plan Arkansas was reconstructed in 1863; and Louisiana and Tennessee in 1864. Congress, however, did not agree with the president that he had the power to reconstruct states. On the contrary, it claimed that power for itself. It therefore opposed his plans, and refused to admit senators and representatives from the newly-constituted states.

595. Johnson's Policy.-Naturally, Johnson adopted Lincoln's plans, and since congress was not in session when he became president, and would not be for eight months, he could do as he pleased for that period of time. He therefore issued a proclamation of pardon in May, 1865, very much like that issued by President Lincoln. The reconstructed states, however, must ratify the thirteenth amendment abolishing slavery. The conditions being accepted by the southern states, excepting only Texas, he proceeded in accordance with Lincoln's ideas, to reconstruct seven more states, Texas being the only one now left out. The acceptance of the

thirteenth amendment by these states made it part of the constitution, and it was declared in force December 18, 1865.

596. Legislation against the Freedmen.-Several of the southern states passed laws virtually restoring slavery. Thus, in Virginia, all persons who would not work for the wages commonly paid were declared vagrants, and could be forced to work; in Mississippi colored orphans and minors without means of support were to be hired out to masters until they became of age. This was slavery for that length of time. That there might be no mistaking the intention of the legislature, the master was given the right to whip the servant. Colored persons without employment were declared vagrants, and were to be arrested and finǝd. If unable to pay the fine, as they undoubtedly would be, they were to be hired out for a term of service. They were forbidden to carry arms or to preach the gospel without a license, and if they did so were fined. In South Carolina a similar code of laws was enacted, but additions were made to it. no freedman could have a trade or occupation other than agriculture or contract service without paying a special license of from $10 to $100.

597. The Congressional Theory.-Congress met in December, 1866. Most of the Republican members were strongly opposed to the president's reconstruction ideas. They were displeased, too, at the acts of the new southern legislatures. Were the southern states to be permitted to accept the thirteenth amendment, and then in mockery trample it under foot by making laws utterly nullifying its provisions? Assuredly not, replied the Republicans, who refused to recognize Johnson's work, and would not allow the senators and representatives from the southern states to take their seats.

Led by Representative Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, and Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts, the radical Republicans began to prepare a reconstruction plan of their own. They made good their right to do so by declaring that

the states out of the union were in the condition of territories, and so could be readmitted only by congressional action. Hence the president on his own authority had no power whatever to restore those states. Acting on this theory, the radical Republicans declared that the southern states should not be considered as in the union until congress assented.

598. The Freedmen's Bureau. - The Republicans then proceeded to thwart the nullifying laws passed by the southerners. The federal troops, which were still in the south, were ordered to stay there and protect the colored man in his new-found liberty. This was effective. Congress then, in February, 1866, passed a bill continuing the Freedmen's Bureau, which had been created in 1865 to take care of sick and helpless freedmen, and to render assistance of all kinds to the colored people. The president vetoed the bill. In July congress passed it again, and when the president again vetoed it, they passed it over his veto. This was a fatal blow to the president's reconstruction plans, for it proved that his opponents had possession of two-thirds of both houses and could always pass bills over the veto.

599. The Fourteenth Amendment.-Congress then cleared the way for its plan of reconstruction by passing a Civil Rights Bill, which gave the freedmen the same rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" which the whites possessed, but did not include political rights, such as the privilege of voting or holding office. The president vetoed the bill, declaring that it was unconstitutional. Congress immediately passed it over the veto. To avoid the objection of unconstitutionality, however, and to make certain that it should never be repealed, the Republicans resolved to force the Civil Rights Bill into the constitution. Consequently a fourteenth amendment was proposed. This enacted that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States" were citizens of the United States and of the state in which they lived. No state was to diminish in any way the civil rights