national spirit, insisting that above all else they should be. Americans, and true to the underlying principles upon which the American nation had been founded.

Washington was both a great soldier and a great statesman and was respected and loved by his countrymen to the day of his death. Born February 22, 1732, he died December 14, 1799, after having served his country for nearly half a century. At his death the whole nation mourned, and even the governments of Europe did honor to his memory. name stands to-day as the most conspicuous name in American history in the eighteenth century.

His

311. The Presidential Election of 1796.-No sooner had Washington signified his intention of retiring than a contest ensued between the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans for the control of the government.

Adams, as the candidate of the Federalists, advocated a strong government, defended the establishment of the United States Bank, the assumption of the state debts, Jay's treaty with England, and insisted on keeping free from European politics.

Jefferson, as the candidate of the Democratic-Republicans, took the opposite side of these questions, excepting that he was equally anxious to avoid foreign entanglement. His party was in sympathy with France.

The parties being very evenly divided, the contest was waged with great bitterness. The Democratic-Republicans charged Adams and his followers with a leaning toward monarchy and sympathy for England,-taunting them with. ingratitude toward France, their late benefactor. On their part, the Federalists charged Jefferson with an attempt to build up the state at the expense of the central government, taunting him with being in league with the Jacobins of France.

Adams was elected by a majority of three; Jefferson, by the rule then in vogue, having received the next highest number of votes, became vice-president.

ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS

FEDERALIST: 1797-1801

312. John Adams, the second president of the United States, was the son of a Massachusetts farmer. At the age

As

of twenty, he graduated from Harvard College; he afterwards taught school, and was later admitted to the bar. a lawyer, he ably defended the British soldiers at the time of the Boston Massacre. He was a member of both Continental Congresses, and of the committee which framed the Declaration of Independence. Through his influence the Dutch republic acknowledged the independence of the United States. He was minister to that country in 1782. He was a member of the American Peace Commission which negotiated the treaty at the close of the Revolution. In 1785 he was appointed minister to the English court. On his return in 1788, he was elected vice-president of the United States. In politics he was a Federalist. He supported the policy of Washington in the trouble with England, and became the strong opponent of Thomas Jefferson.

He was born in 1735, and died on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. The coincidence has been remarked in history that Thomas Jefferson expired on the same day. Though for many years political and personal enemies, Adams and Jefferson in later life became reconciled.

Adams was a ready speaker and writer, although often indiscreet both in speech and in the use of his pen. Though popular with the mass of his party, he failed of reëlection owing to the fact that many of the Federalist leaders refused to indorse him on account of his energetic support of the Alien and Sedition laws.

313. Trouble with France. In the very beginning of his administration, Adams was confronted by trouble with France, which had been brewing since Jay's treaty with Eng

land. The French government held that that treaty was a violation of the treaty made between France and the United States in 1778, and charged the United States with ingratitude. The Democratic-Republicans had openly expressed their sympathy for France; while Adams and the Federalists, following the example of Washington, insisted on neutrality. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were on the point of being severed, when Adams dispatched three special envoys to France to reëstablish, if possible, friendly relations between the two republics.

314. The X, Y, Z Correspondence: "Millions for Defence; Not One Cent for Tribute."-The commissioners arrived in France, but found it impossible to obtain an interview with Talleyrand, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs. Instead of granting an interview, that wily diplomat designated three agents to treat with the American envoys. The negotiations were carried on by correspondence. In the dispatches to the American government, the American commissioners designated Talleyrand's agents by the letters "X," "Y," and "Z," instead of by name. On the side of France this correspondence was not only disrespectful to the United States, but discreditable to the French government as well. The French agents even went so far as to hint that in the settlement of the dispute, a bribe from the United States would be acceptable to the French minister, to which Charles C. Pinckney, one of the American commissioners, indignantly replied that the United States had "millions for defence, not one cent for tribute." Negotiations were at once broken off, and the commissioners returned home.

315. War with France Averted.-When the "X, Y, Z" correspondence was published in America, it produced bitter feeling against France. Even the Democratic-Republicans resented the insult, and now consented to follow the lead of the Federal party and, if need be, to meet the issue by a declaration of war. All treaties with France were declared to be no longer binding. While war was not proclaimed,

congress voted to create an army. Washington was to be at its head, and Hamilton, second in command. It was also voted to build a navy. Merchant ships were authorized to arm themselves for the purpose of seizing French ships on the high seas. War had actually begun on the sea when Talleyrand, now alarmed at the turn affairs had taken, disavowed the insults offered by his agents, and proposed to receive any minister whom the American government might send. Adams, acting promptly, dispatched ambassadors to France. These being courteously received by the French minister, all danger of war was averted.

316. The Alien and Sedition Laws-1798.-By his prompt action in averting war, Adams lost the support of at least one-half the Federal party-the Federalists being in favor of war; but he gained, on the other hand, the respect of the Democratic-Republicans. This he could no doubt have held, had it not been that congress, during the heat of the excitement, unwisely passed the Alien and Sedition laws.

Many foreigners in America (particularly those from France) were suspected of plotting against the government. The Alien Act authorized the president to order out of the country all foreigners whose presence was suspected of being dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States.

At this time, too, the government encountered much opposition from the partisan press of the country. It was charged by the Federalists that the editorials of this press were scandalous and malicious, and were intended to bring disrepute upon the national government by stirring up sedition. The Sedition Act provided for the fining and imprisonment of any person who should print or publish any false, scandalous, or malicious writing against the government, congress, or the president.

These laws provoked bitter opposition in every part of the country. The president declined to exercise his authority under the Alien Act; but aided in prosecutions under the Sedition Law. In so doing Adams not only destroyed his

chance of reëlection, but assisted in the complete downfall of the Federal party.

317. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions-1798.During the controversy over the Alien and Sedition laws, the first serious collision between the friends and opponents of the "state's rights" theory occurred. Both the Virginia and the Kentucky legislatures passed resolutions denouncing the laws the Kentucky resolutions being especially outspoken in declaring that any state could nullify a law of the national government when such law was "unconstitutional." The expiration of the Alien and Sedition laws removed the cause of the trouble, but the doctrine thus voiced became a disturbing element in legislation-leading, in 1861, to the Civil War.

318. The Second Census-1800.-The second census of the United States was taken in 1800, showing a total population of 5,305,937 (including 993,041 slaves)-an increase of thirty-five per cent over the census of 1790.

319. John Marshall, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court1801.-As one of the last acts of his administration, Adams appointed John Marshall chief justice of the supreme court of the United States. No wiser appointment has ever been made by a president of the republic. The opinions which Chief Justice Marshall rendered during the thirty-five years of his service are to-day considered as authority upon all questions of constitutional law. By his broad, clear, and statesmanlike interpretation of the constitution, he greatly aided in establishing a firm national union, and imparted life and vigor to the constitution.

320. The Presidential Election of 1800.—The presidential election of 1800 was even more bitter than that of 1796. Adams and Jefferson were again the candidates of their respective parties. The vice-presidential candidates were Charles C. Pinckney, Federalist, and Aaron Burr, Democratic-Republican. The constitution at that time provided that the person receiving the highest number of votes in the