the sixteenth century the principle as well as the practice of every church."- Hallam's Middle Ages, vol. 2, p. 48.

"When any step was taken to establish a system of permanent institutions, which might effectually protect liberty from the invasions of power in general, the church always ranged herself on the side of despotism.' - Guizot's History of Civilization in Europe, p. 154.

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"There was fighting and fighting between the old and new school, and all on a question that would make a crab laugh, — questions that were hypercritical and infinite, and about which everybody knew nothing at all, and they thought they knew as well as God. Questions were talked of with positiveness, and argued; and, when I look back upon them, I cannot help thinking they were no better than the contentions of children around the cradle. But all this gave me great repulsion for dogmatic theology, and it is a repulsion which I have not got over, and the present prospects are that I never shall." Henry Ward Beecher.

EARTHQUAKES AND PREDICTIONS.-Professor Rudolf Falb, of Vienna, it is reported, predicted to an hour the earthquakes which have occurred in France and Italy.

Writing in the Austrian papers some days ago, he pointed out that the annular eclipse of the sun, which commenced on Tuesday morning at 6.41 Greenwich time, was central at 9.13 P. M., and ended on the earth generally at twenty-five minutes past midnight on Wednesday morning, was likely to be accompanied with strong atmospheric and seismic disturbances. The learned physicist has gained a great reputation by previous similar forecasts. His first and great success was the foretelling the destructive shock at Belluno, on June 29, 1873. Nearly the whole of Northern Italy was affected, and upwards of fifty lives were lost. Very shortly afterwards he gave warning of the probability of an eruption of Etna, which followed at the time anticipated in 1874."- London Echo.

"John S. Newberry, professor of geology and paleontology at Columbia College, being the American authority upon all matters pertaining to the crust of the earth, was naturally interested in the earthquake that visited Long Island on Wednesday. He derides the idea that the local seismic disturbance has any connection with the recent occurrences at Mentone, as the shocks were too far apart, and, if connected, should have been felt within eigut hours of each other, whereas there was several days' difference. His theory, which is amply sustained by observation, is that an earthquake is a movement caused by a shrinking, from loss of heat, of the interior of the earth and the crushing together and displacement of the rigid exterior as it accommodates itself to this contraction. It has been noticed that the earth is shaken along the Alleghany chain nearly every year. It is impossible to predict a recurrence of the shocks, but it is quite probable they will recur. There is a record of 231 earthquakes in the New England States between the years 1638 and 1869." Brooklyn Eagle.

Chapter II. - Structure of the Brain.

Man a triple being - Materialists and illusionists misconceive him— Relation of the soul to the brain and body-The nervous system; illustration - Embryonic condition - Anatomical descriptions unsatisfactory and the phrenological school incorrect - Exterior view of the brain in the head, illustrated and described - The cerebrum, cerebellum, and tentorium - Interior view of the base of the skull -Bones of the head illustrated - Division of the brain into lobes and convolutions, with illustration - Frontal, middle, parietal, tempero-sphenoidal, and occipital-Anatomical plan or grouping of convolutions differs from their actual appearance-View of the superior surface illustrated-Difference between the irregular convolutions and the angular maps - View of the inferior surface of the brain-Illustration and description of the parts - Interior view of section on the median line-Divided and undivided surfaces Corpus callosum explained - The two brains and their diagonal relations to the body - Penetrating and describing the lateral ventricles The serum in the brain - Variations of serum and blood - Variations in hydrocephalus and insanity - Our power to modify the brain and change our destiny - Power of educationResponsibility of society-The lateral ventricles the centre of the brain Base of the ventricles, the great inferior ganglia of the brain, corpora striata, and thalami-Their radiating fibres inclosing a cavity The thalami and their commissure and third ventricle -The medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and arbor vitæ - The Varolii and crura of the brain-the corpora quadrigemina, pineal gland, fourth ventricle, and calamus scriptorius.

pons

MAN is essentially a triple organization, consisting of the permanent psychic being, intangible to our external senses, but nevertheless so distinctly recognized internally by consciousness and externally or in others, by intuition and understanding, that the psychic is as well understood and known as the physical being. This being is the eternal man—the material body being its temporary associate. The physical being, or material form, consists of the portion directly and entirely occupied by the psychic existence - which is called the brain or encephalon, and is in life also beyond the reach of our senses in the interior of the cranium - and the non-psychic structure, the body, which, though not the residence of the soul, has so intimate and complete a connection with the entire brain that during active life it feels as if it were the actual residence of the soul, so far as sensation and action are concerned.

The soul, or psychic being, has external and internal perceptions (for which it has cerebral organs). When the former predominate too greatly, the human body and all external objects are realized most vividly, and the reality of psychic life is not so well realized or understood. Hence persons Hence persons so organized are disposed to

materialism, and either doubt the existence of their psychic being, or are indifferent to it.

On the other hand, those in whom the interior faculties predominate too greatly vividly realize their psychic life, but have more vague and feeble conceptions of material objects, including their own bodies, and attach undue importance to the imaginary and subjective in preference to the objective. The materialists and the illusionists, however, are not entirely composed of these two classes of subjective and objective thinkers. The majority consists of persons of moderate reasoning capacity, who simply follow their leaders.

In making a critical distinction between the psycho-organie brain and non-psychic body, the former may be confined strictly within the cranium, leaving the exterior portions of the head as a part of the non-psychic body; but as they are more intimately associated with the brain than any part below the neck, this distinction is not important; and if the whole head, as the environment of the psychic brain, be grouped with it, it may not lead to any material error. The brain is intimately associated with the entire physical person by twelve pairs of cranial or cerebral nerves, and by the spinal cord, which descends from the base of the brain through a great foramen or opening midway between the ears, and while passing down the spinal column gives off thirty pairs of

nerves.

The cranial nerves are all for the head, except the pneumogastric or lung-stomach nerve, which belongs to the organs of respiration, voice, and digestion; and the spinal nerves are all for the body, except a few which ramify in the neck and in the scalp.

The entire nervous system is so instantaneously prompt in conveying to the brain the impressions which originate feeling, and in conveying from the brain the nervous energies that produce voluntary motion and modify all the processes of life, that we feel as if we had sensation and volition in every part of the body; or, in other words, that our conscious existence was in the body; but we rationally know that the sensation and volition occur in the brain, for neither sensation nor voluntary motion can occur if the nervous connection with the brain is interrupted by compression and section, or if the brain itself be sufficiently compressed. When the brain is exposed by an injury of the cranium, the pressure of a finger suspends all consciousness and volition, making a blank in the life of the individ

ual.

Animal life resides in the nervous system alone, and its character is proportioned to the development thereof, of which the brain is the principal mass. A subordinate portion of the general life, however, is in the nervous system of the body, and in proportion as the brain declines in development the relative amount of psychic energy in the body is greater. Thus the body of the alligator after decapitation is capable of sensation and voluntary acts, such as pushing away an offending body with its foot. The character of the life in the body is explained by physiology and sarcognomy. Its univer

sal presence is due to the universal diffusion of the nervous system, of which the accompanying figure, showing the location of the spinal cord and spinal nerves, will give a proper conception. In this figure

the spinal cord, with its thirty pairs of nerves, eight cervical at the neck, twelve dorsal in the back, five lumbar in the loins, and five or six in the sacrum (between the hips), is seen descending from the base of the brain below the cerebellum (which is rather too large in engraving), and proceeding throughout the body until lost in fine ramifications which the microscope can scarcely trace, but which quickly inform us if they are touched or disturbed.

It cannot properly be said that the spinal cord proceeds from the brain, nor on the other hand that the brain proceeds from the spinal cord, for they originate simultaneously in a soft, jelly-like condition

in which the microscope cannot detect the latent structure, not as they are in the adult, but as they are in the foetus in which they first appear, with a structure similar to that of the lowest class of vertebrate animals, the fishes.

From this embryonic condition, in which there is very little resemblance to the adult brain, its progress has been carefully traced by many observers, but chiefly by Tiedemann, through all the stages of life before birth into the soft, infantile form of the human brain. Some knowledge of this embryonic growth is necessary to a correct understanding of the adult brain, its essential plan, its growth, and the correct estimate of its development.

I have not found in our anatomical works what I consider a satisfactory exposition of this subject. Beginning as a student with Spurzheim's anatomy of the brain, which ought to have been the clearest and most complete of all, I found it so obscure and unsatisfactory that until I had made many dissections I had no very clear understanding. I have never found any pleasure in the writings of Spurzheim. In more recent authors the anatomical details are very abundant indeed, and sufficient to tax the memory heavily, but without that system and philosophy which appeal to the understanding and make our conceptions satisfactory, as I hope to make them to my readers, who must have very incorrect conceptions of the plan of the brain, if they have relied upon the writings of Mr. Combe and his successors of the phrenological school, none of whom, so far as I am aware, have really understood cerebral anatomy.

Let us approach the subject by taking an exterior and general view, then by tracing the embryonic growth of the brain, and the interior connections of its fibres, until we are fully prepared to judge of its development as it lies in the skull, and to understand the relation of each organ to all other portions. Then we can study its functions with a clear understanding of the relations of the organs to each other, which is the material basis of psychic science, and with full confidence in our ability to judge and compare living heads and skulls of man and amimals.

Let us take an exterior view by removing one half of the skull from the right side of the head. This enables us to see that the front portion of the brain rests above the sockets of the eyes, coming down in the centre as low as the root of the nose, but a little higher exteriorly. When we touch the forehead just over the root of the nose, our finger touches the lowest level of the front lobe, the seat of the intellect; but when we touch the external angle of the brow on the same level, we

touch a process of bone, and our finger is fully half an inch below