is the vicar of God upon earth, and has supreme power over all the church. The extent of the authority thus assumed by the pope, is different in different countries, and the whole doctrine of the papal supremacy is of course rejected by the Protestant, Greek and other churches. In 1534, Henry VIII assumed the title of the only supreme head, on earth, of the church of England. The oath of supremacy (that is, of renunciation of the papal supremacy), with the oath of abjuration (q. v.), was formerly required to be taken by all persons in office, and might be tendered, by two justices of the peace, to all persons suspected of disaffection in England. Some modifications of the law requiring this oath were made in 1793 (see Catholic Emancipation); but it was still, with the declaration against transubstantiation, the invocation of saints, and the sacrifice of the mass, requisite as a qualification for sitting and voting in parliament, and for holding certain offices, until the passage of the Catholic relief bill. This bill repeals all former acts on the subject, and requires of a Roman Catholic peer, or member of the house of commons, &c., besides the oath of allegiance and abjuration, the following oath of supremacy: I do declare that it is not an article of my faith, and that I do reject, renounce and abjure the opinion, that princes excommunicated or deprived by the pope, or any other authority of the see of Rome, may be deposed or murdered by their subjects, or by any person whatsoever; and I do declare that I do not believe that the pope of Rome, or any other foreign prince, prelate, person, state or potentate, hath, or ought to have, any temporal or civil jurisdiction, power, superiority or preeminence, directly or indirectly, within this realm.

SUPREME COURT OF THE U. STATES. (See Courts of the U. States, paragraph 3.) SURAT; a city of Hindoostan, in Guzerat, on the Taptee, twenty miles from its mouth; lon. 73° 3′ E.; lat. 21° 13′ N. The population was estimated, in 1796, at 800,000; the returns of 1816 gave a population of about 325,000. It is one of the most ancient and populous cities of India, and was formerly called the imperial port, and was the place whence Mohammedan pilgrims were conveyed to Mecca, often at the expense of government. The articles of its commerce were of the richest kind, viz. diamonds, pearls, gold, musk, ambergris, spices, indigo, saltpetre, silk, and fine cottons. But since the rise of Bombay, its commerce has

much declined, and now consists chiefly of raw cotton, a few of its own manufactures, and articles imported from Guzerat. The greater number of vessels that now enter the port are Arabs. All large vessels are obliged to remain at the mouth of the river called Swallow roads, where they are somewhat exposed to storms; but the anchorage is good. The value of the exports, in 1811, amounted to 3,964,523 rupees. Surat is situated in a fertile plain, protected on one side by the river, and on the three others by a brick rampart and ditch. It also possesses a strong citadel, surrounded by an esplanade. It is inhabited by a great variety of people; but the Parsees, or fire worshippers, are most affluent. In 1807, there were reckoned 1200 Parsees of the sacerdotal class, and 12,000 of the laity. The hospital for the preservation of maimed or diseased animals was formerly occupied by rats, mice, bugs, &c. The squares of the city are large, the streets spacious, but not paved, and the dust troublesome. The larger houses are flat roofed; the houses of the common people high roofed. The civil administration of this city has been vested in the hands of the English East India company since 1800.

SURD, in arithmetic and algebra, denotes any number or quantity that is incommensurable to unity; otherwise called an irrational number or quantity. (See Irrational Quantity.)

SURGERY (from the Greek yep, the hand, and toyov, work); that branch of the healing art which cures or prevents diseases by the application of the hand, either unaided or with the aid of instruments. War early made the healing of wounds more important than the curing of diseases, which were then less frequent, on account of the simple manner of living. Fifty years before the Trojan war, Melampus, Chiron, and his disciple Æsculapius, accompanied the Argonautic expedition in the quality of surgeons; and in the Trojan war, two sons of Esculapius, Machaon and Podalirius, took care of the wounded Greeks. The Greek and Arabian physicians, at a later period, cultivated surgery and medicine together, as is proved by the works of Hippocrates, Galen, Celsus, Paulus of Ægina, Albucasis, &c. However, in the time of Hippocrates, some surgical operations were kept separate from medicine. In the oath of Hippocrates, lithotomy was forbidden to physicians. The Arabians also felt an aversion for operations, and it was considered beneath the dignity of physicians

some of the latter enriched with a variety of mineral productions. The river Surinam, which gives name to the colony, rises from mountains in the interior, and, after a course of about 150 miles, flows into the Atlantic, lon. 55° 40′ W., lat. 6° 25 N. It is about four miles wide at its mouth, and from sixteen to eighteen feet deep, at low water mark, the tide rising and falling above twelve feet. It is navigable for small craft 120 miles. Paramaribo, twelve miles from its mouth, is the capital of the colony. It has a safe and convenient harbor, with an active commerce, and contains a population of 8000 whites, and several thousand free blacks, slaves, &c. The English have several times been in possession of Surinam, but finally restored it, in 1815, to the Dutch government.

SURREY. (See Howard, Henry.) SURROGATE; one who is substituted or appointed in the room of another; as the bishop or chancellor's surrogate (from the Latin surrogare).

SURSOLID, in arithmetic and algebra; the fifth power, or fourth multiplication of any number or quantity, considered as a root. (See Root.)

SURTURBRAND, fossil wood, impregnated more or less with bitumen, is found in great abundance in Iceland. A bed of it extends nearly through the whole of the north-western part of the island. It is, in fact, a subterranean forest, impregnated with bituminous sap, and compressed by the weight of the superincumbent rocks. Branches and leaves are pressed together in a compact mass; but the fibres of each may be distinctly traced. The surturbrand is used by the Icelanders chiefly in their smithies, and in small quantities. It is sometimes so little mineralized as to be employed for timber.-Surtur is the name of the northern god of fire. (See Northern Mythology.)

SURVEYING, in a general sense, denotes the art of measuring the angular and linear distances of objects, so as to be able to delineate their several positions on paper, and to ascertain the superficial area, or space between them. It is a branch of applied mathematics, and supposes a good knowledge of arithmetic and geometry. It is of two kinds, land surveying and marine surveying, the former having generally in view the measure or contents of certain tracts of land, and the latter the position of beacons, towers, shoals, coasts, &c. Those extensive operations which have for their object the determination of the latitude and longitude of places, and

the length of terrestrial arcs in different latitudes, also fall under the general term surveying, though they are frequently called trigonometrical surveys, or geodetic operations, and the science itself geodesy. (See Trigonometry, Degrees, Heights, and Triangle.) Land surveying consists of three distinct operations: 1. the measuring of the several lines and angles; 2. protracting or laying down the same on paper, so as to form a correct map of an estate or country; 3. the computation of the superficial contents, as found by the preceding operation. Various instruments are used for the purpose of taking the dimensions, the most indispensable of which is the chain commonly called Gunter's chain, which is 22 yards long, and is divided into 100 links, each 7.92 inches: 10 of these square chains, or 100,000 square links, is one acre. This is used for taking the linear dimensions when the area of the land is required; but when only the position of objects is to be determined, a chain of 50 or 100 feet is more commonly used. A great deal of labor is frequently saved by having proper instruments for measuring angles. The most usual and the best adapted for this purpose are the circumferentor, theodolite and semicircle. The surveyor's cross, or cross-staff, is likewise very convenient for raising perpendiculars. For surveying in detail, the plain table is the best instrument. Of the German works on this subject, Meyer's Unterricht zur praktischen Geometrie (1815), and Lehmann's Anweisung zur richtigen Erkennung und genauen Abbildung der Erdoberfläche (1812), deserve to be recommended. (See Topography.)

SUS. PER COLL. On the trial of criminals in England, the usage at the assizes is for the judge to sign the calendar, or list of all the prisoners' names, with their separate judgments in the margin. For a capital felony, the sentence "Hanged by the neck" is written opposite the prisoner's name. Formerly, in the days of Latin and abbreviation, the phrase used was sus. per coll., for suspendatur per collum.

SUSQUEHANNA, the largest river of Pennsylvania, is formed by two branches which unite at Northumberland. The east branch rises in Otsego lake, in New York: the western branch rises in Huntingdon county, Pennsylvania. After their junction, the river flows south-east into the head of Chesapeake bay, and is one and one fourth mile wide at its mouth. It is navigable only five miles.

SUSSEX, Augustus Frederic, duke of,

sixth son of George III, and second surviving brother of the present king, was born Jan. 27, 1773, and received his education, with his brothers, the dukes of Cumberland and Cambridge (see the articles), at Göttingen. He then travelled in Italy, and spent four years at Rome, where, in 1793, he married lady Augusta Murray, daughter of the Catholic earl of Dunmore, according to the forms of the Roman Catholic church. On their return to England, they were again married by bans in London; and the duke offered to resign his claims as a member of the royal family, on condition that his marriage should not be disturbed. It was, how ever, soon after declared invalid by the ecclesiastical court, as contrary to the provisions of the royal marriage act, 12 Geo. III, c. 11, which declares that no descendant of George II shall be capable of contracting matrimony without the consent of the king. On the publication of this sentence, lady Augusta, who had become the mother of two children, separated from the duke, and passed the rest of her life in retirement. In 1801, the prince was created earl of Inverness and duke of Sussex, and received a parliamentary grant of £12,000 per annum, which was subsequently increased by the addition of £9000. It is the boast of the duke that he has never applied for any grant from parliament, and that he has paid his debts fully from the savings of his pension. The duke is an easy speaker, and has often spoken in the house of lords, particularly in favor of measures for the relief of Catholics, and usually addresses the many charitable and literary societies of which he is a member. He has been for a long time president of the society for the encouragement of the useful arts, and has recently been elected president of the royal society. He has been the friend and patron of learned men, and is himself a scholar. He has collected a valuable library, particularly rich in Bibles and dictionaries. A catalogue has been published by Pettigrew (Bibliotheca Sussexiana, 1828). In his political principles, the duke has been attached to the whigs, and was consequent ly in the opposition during the regency and reign of his brother George IV. His liberal opinions in politics, and the part which he took in favor of the queen (see Caroline Amelia), estranged him from the court; but a reconciliation took place during the king's last illness. The children of the duke by lady Augusta Murray bear the name of D'Este.

SUSSMEYER, Francis Xavier; a composer at Vienna, a pupil of Salieri, and, from 1795, attached to the imperial opera at Vienna. He died in 1803, thirty-seven years old. He composed several operas, and supplied those parts of Mozart's requiem which that great master left unfinished.

SUTTEE, or, more properly, SATI; a word in the Sanscrit, or sacred language of the Hindoos, meaning pure, and hence extensively applied to their female deities, and to acts of purification, especially to that preeminent species, the self-immolation of the widow on the funeral pile of her deceased husband. The name of this horrid sacrifice is commonly written suttee by the English; but sati is the correct mode of spelling it, according to the orthographical system of sir W. Jones. The origin of satiism, or sutteeism, is buried in mythology. The goddess Sati, to avenge an insult offered to her husband Iswara by her father's neglect to invite him to an entertainment, consumed herself before the assembled gods.* To lord Bentinck, governor-general of India, belongs the honor of having abolished this shocking perversion of devotion in the British dominions. This abolition took place in December, 1829. Until then, the British government had permitted it, provided the act was perfectly voluntary (which the religion of Brahma also prescribes), and if notice of such resolution had been previously given to a magistrate, who was required to see that the suttee was public, and that all the requisitions of the law were fulfilled. We learn from bishop Heber's Narrative that the opinions of well-informed men, to whom the cause of humanity was equally dear, were divided respecting the abolition of these self-sacrifices, some believing that suttees would then take place in secret, and be more common than before, and that opportunities, moreover, would be afforded for many murders. The people are said to have heartily rejoiced at the abolition; but, what may well surprise us, the East India Magazine states that an English lawyer went from India to England to prosecute an appeal before the privy council, made by some Brahmins in Bengal, against lord Bentinck's prohibition of suttees. The same journal states that this "custom had its origin in the excessive jealousy of the early Hindoo princes, who, with a view to prevent their

* See Tod's Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan; also the review of it in the American Quarterly, number xx, December, 1831.

numerous widows forming subsequent attachments, availed themselves of their irresponsible power; and, with the aid of the priests, it was promulgated, as if by sacred authority, that the wives of the Hindoos of every caste, who desire future beatitude, should immolate themselves on the demise of their husbands. Since 1756, when the British power in India became firmly established, upwards of 70,000 widows have been cruelly sacrificed! A Brahmin possesses the privilege of marrying as many wives as he pleases. Ununtu, a Brahmin who died at Bagnapore, had more than one hundred wives: twenty-two were burned at his death. The fire was kept burning three days. He had married four sisters, two of whom were burned with his corpse. A short time before lord Bentinck's order, a rajah in the hill country, who died, had twenty-eight wives burned with his body." So far the East India Magazine. Perhaps, however, this self-immolation is in 'part owing to the surprisingly little value which Hindoos put on human life (hence so many suicides, infanticides, immolations and self-immolations), and to the relation of the Hindoo wife to her husband. None of the sacred books of the Hindoos command the suttee, though they speak of it as highly meritorious: it is believed to render the husband and his ancestors happy, and to purify him from all offences, even if he had killed a Brahmin. (See the Veda, &c., quoted before the privy council, June 23, 1832, to support the above-mentioned petition.) The rule is, that the act of the widow must be voluntary; but we can easily imagine that the fanaticism or cupidity of relations often compels the Hindoo widow to immolate herself, just as they forced women, in the middle ages, to take the veil, which also is required, by the rules of the church, to be voluntary. The ceremonies of a suttee are various, and last from a quarter of an hour to two hours. Sometimes the widow is placed in a cavity prepared under the corpse of the husband; sometimes she is laid by the body, embracing it. If the husband was not a Brahmin, it is not required that the corpse should be burned with the widow: any thing which belonged to the deceased-his garments, slippers, walking-staff may be substituted for the corpse. There were, according to official report, above forty suttees in the province of Ghazepoor in 1324; and several had taken place not reported to the magistrate.

SUWAROFF-RIMNITZKOY, Peter Alexis Wasiliowitsch, count of, prince Italinski,

field-marshal and generalissimo of the Russian armies, one of the most distinguished generals of the eighteenth century, was born at Suskoy, a village of the Ukraine, in 1730. His father, an officer, placed him in the military academy at Petersburg; and, in his seventeenth year, Suwaroff entered the service as a common soldier, and gave proofs of his courage in the war against Sweden. In 1754, he became lieutenant, and, after distinguishing himself in the seven years' war (q. v.), received the command of a regiment, in 1763. In 1768, he obtained the rank of brigadier-general, and served several campaigns in Poland, receiving, in reward for his courage and conduct, the crosses of three Russian orders of knighthood. In 1773, he was appointed to the command of a division of the troops under count Romanzoff, and completely defeated a portion of the Turkish army at Turtukey, killing several of the enemy with his own hand. Crossing the Danube, he afterwards, in conjunction with the force under Kamenskoy, routed the army of the reis effendi with great slaughter, and the capture of all his artillery. In 1783, he reduced the Budziac Tartars under the Russian yoke. In 1787, being chief in command, he was intrusted with the defence of Kinburn, then attacked by the Turkish forces both by sea and land; and, after an obstinate siege, succeeded in repulsing his assailants with considerable loss. At Oczakow and Fockzami (at the former of which places he received a severe wound) his daring valor was equally displayed; and, in the September of 1789, the Austrian troops, under the prince of Saxe-Coburg, being surrounded, on the banks of the Rimnik, by 100,000 Turks, owed their preservation to his timely arrival with 10,000 Russians, who not only rescued them from a destruction that appeared inevitable, but occasioned the utter overthrow of the enemy. To this victory he was indebted for the first of his above-named titles, and the dignity of a count of both empires. The next, and perhaps the most sanguinary of his actions, was the storming of Ismail (q. v.), in 1790. This strongly fortified town had resisted all attempts to reduce it for a period of seven months, when Suwaroff received peremptory orders from prince Potemkin (q. v.) to take it without delay, and pledged himself to execute the task assigned him in three days. Of the sacking of the place on the third, and the indiscriminate massacre of 40,000 of its inhabitants, of every age and sex, the ac