essence of all things; and the relation of the latter to the former has been variously considered. Spinoza has treated particularly of the one absolute substance, and given to it infinite thought and infinite extension as inseparable attributes. SUBSTANTIVE. (See Noun.) SUBSTITUTION, in the civil law, is the appointment of an heir to succeed in case of the failure of one previously appoint ed. If the second person is to succeed in case of the death of the first, or of his not accepting the inheritance, the substitution is called direct, if the first heir is bound to convey the inheritance to the substitute or second heir. This is a fideicommissary substitution. (See Fidei Commissa.) The former kind comprises the vulgar substitution, which is merely the appointment of a second heir in case the first should not inherit, and the pupillary substitution, which is the appointment of an heir, by a father or grandfather, in the name of a minor child, over whom he has paternal power, in case the latter should die a minor. The mother cannot make a pupillary substitution. The latter ceases, 1. by the death of the minor in question before the death of the testator; 2. by his arriving at full age; 3. by the paternal appointment failing to take effect; 4. by the withdrawing of the minor from the paternal power. The quasi pupillary substitution (substitutio exemplaris) is the appointment of an heir by parents for an idiot child, in case the child should die in a state of idiocy. If the child has lucid intervals, the parents are not aljowed to make such substitution; other wise, even the mother may do it. SUBTANGENT OF A CURVE, in the higher geometry, is the line which determines the intersection of the tangent with the axis, or that determines the point where the tangent cuts the axis prolonged. SUBTENSE, in geometry; the same with the chord of an arch. SUCCESSION POWDER. (See Poudre de Succession.)

SUCCINIC ACID; an acid derived from the distillation of amber. By adding one twelfth part of sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal weight of water, the yield of acid is much increased. The acid, being dissolved in hot water, and filtered, is to be saturated with potash or soda, and boiled with charcoal. The solution being filtered, nitrate of lead is added; whence results an insoluble succinate of lead; from which, by digestion in the equivalent quantity of sulphuric acid, pure succinic acid is separated. It is in white trans

parent crystals, which possess a sharp taste, and powerfully redden tincture of turnsole. It is soluble in both alcohol and water. It forms salts with the alkalies and oxides. The succinates of potash and ammonia are crystallizable and deliquescent. That of soda does not attract moisture. The succinate of ammonia is useful in analysis to separate oxide of iron.

SUCCORY. (See Endive.)

SUCHET, Louis Gabriel, duke of Albufera, marshal of France, born at Lyons in 1770, entered the military service at an early age (1790), and passed rapidly through the inferior ranks. In 1796, he was attached to the army of Italy, and attracted the notice of general Bonaparte, by his courage, boldness and caution. He then served with distinction under Masséna and Joubert, and was one of the most active and successful of Napoleon's generals in the campaigns of 1805 and 1806. In 1808, he received the command of a division in Spain, and was almost constantly victorious till after the battle of Vittoria. His brilliant services in that country obtained him the marshal's staff, and the title of duke. After the restoration, Suchet was created peer of France. Having accepted, under Napoleon, a command during the hundred days, he was deprived of his seat on the second restoration, but readmitted in 1819. He died in 1826.

SUCKING FISH. (See Echeneis.)

SUCKLING, Sir John, a wit, courtier, and dramatist, son of a knight of the same name, was born in 1613, at Witham, in Middlesex. He is said to have spoken Latin fluently at five years old, and written it with ease and elegance at nine. After lingering some time about the court, he was despatched upon his travels, and served a campaign under the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, in the course of which he was present at three battles and several sieges. At the time of the Scotch war, sir John raised a troop of horse for the king's service, who be haved so badly in the field as to disgrace both themselves and their commander. An abortive attempt to effect the escape of the earl of Strafford, confined in the Tower under articles of impeachment from the commons, implicated sir John so seriously, that he thought it advisable to retire to France, where he died in 1641. His writings consist of letters written with ease and spirit; some miscellaneous poems; Aglaura, a play; Brennoralt, à tragedy; the Sad One, a

tragedy left incomplete; and the Goblins, a tragi-comedy.

SUCRE, Antonio Jose de, was born in 1793, at Cumana, in Venezuela. He was educated at Caracas, and entered the army in 1811, where he served with credit under the orders of the celebrated Miranda. Afterwards he becaine favorably known for activity, intelligence and courage, under Piar, the mulatto general. From 1814 to 1817, Sucre served in the staff of the army, and displayed the zeal and talent which characterized him. In 1819, he had attained the rank of brigadier-general, and was one of the commissioners appointed, after the battle of Bojaca, to negotiate a suspension of hostilities with Morillo. Subsequently to this, he received the command of a division sent from Bogota to assist the province of Guayaquil. He met with a severe check at Huachi, but succeeded, late in the year 1821, in concluding an armistice with Aymerich, the royalist general, which was, in its effects, equivalent to a victory. It enabled the Peruvian division, under Santa Cruz, to form a junction with the Colombians. Hostilities recommenced in February, 1822, and the united armies were so fortunate as to achieve the decisive victory of Pichincha, May 24, 1822, which was inmediately followed by the capitulation of Quito. This brilliant success fixed the public attention upon Sucre, and raised expectations of his future cininence, which the event fully justified. Meanwhile Bolivar had proceeded to the south, at the head of a large army destined to act against the Spanish forces in that quarter; and, in July, 1822, had an interview with the protector, San Martin, at Guayaquil. Early in 1823, Sucre was despatched to Lima as Colombian envoy, accompanied by an auxiliary Colombian army of 3000 men. Lima, having been left unprotected, at this time, by the departure of Santa Cruz to reduce the southern provinces, was retaken by Canterac, and abandoned by the president, Riva-Aguero, and the Peruvian congress, June 18, 1823. Hereupon Sucre was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces, and, a few days afterwards, supreme military chief,with powers almost unlimited. He retired to Callao, which was invested by the royalists, until the successes of Santa Cruz in the south obliged Canterac to evacuate Lima, July 17, 1823. Sucre then determined to place himself at the head of an expedition sent against Arequipa, and to cooperate with Santa Cruz. But the total destruction of the patriot

army, under the latter, in Upper Peru, made it necessary for Sucre to reëmburk, and return to Callao. In September, general Bolivar made his public entry into Lima, having obtained permission from the Colombian government to prosecute the war in Peru, and was immediately invested with supreme authority in military and political affairs. Of course, general Sucre now became only second in command of the liberating army, consist ing of 10,000 men, assembled at Huaras, preparatory to commencing offensive operations. But after the battle of Junin, gained by the patriots, August 5, 1824, Bolivar quitted the army, and went to Lima, to attend to affairs on the coast, leaving the prosecution of the war with Sucre. In the arduous and masterly movements which followed, Sucre displayed the skill of a consummate general. The scene of operations was the moun tainous region of Peru. It was neces sary that he should march and countermarch, for the space of two months, over this difficult ground, in the face of a much superior army, commanded by the ablest royalist generals in America, whose aim it was to cut off his resources, and reduce him without the hazard of a battle. But the impatience of the troops on each side brought on a general engagement in the field of Ayacucho, Dec. 9, 1824, the most brilliant ever fought in South America. Both armies consisted of veteran troops, well appointed and disciplined, who fought with undaunted courage. The battle resulted in the capture of the viceroy La Serna, and the loss of 2000 of the royalists in killed and wounded; and on the same day general Canterac, with the rest of the army, comprising fifteen general officers and nearly 4000 men in all, surrendered themselves prisoners of war, by capitulation. Sucre promptly followed up this glorious victory, and his troops entered Cuzco on the 12th of December in triumph. As Olañeta, with a small body of royalists in Upper Peru, refused to comply with the terms of the capitulation of Ayacucho, Sucre was obliged to march upon Puno, which he entered in February, and thence proceeded to Chuquisaca. The death of Olañeta, who was killed in April, in an af fray with his own troops, accomplished the delivery of Upper Peru. Until a regular government could be established, Sucre, of course, remained in the exercise of authority as supreme chief; but he summoned a congress to assemble, as speedily as might be, et Chuquisaca, to

decide whether Upper Peru should be annexed to Lower Peru, or to Buenos Ayres, or form a republic by itself. The constituent congress decreed, August 11, 1825, to form a new republic, by the name of Bolivia, and to call the capital by the name of Sucre, in whom the government was vested for the time being, with the title of captain-general and grand-marshal of Ayacucho." The congress, having solicited Bolivar to prepare a fundamental code for Bolivia, dissolved itself, Oct. 6, 1825. The new congress assembled to receive it, May 25, 1826. Sucre then resigned the discretionary power, which he had exercised hitherto; but, contrary to his expressed wish, and contrary, probably, to his real desire, he was elected president of Bolivia, under the new constitution. How far apprehensions of the auxiliary Colombian army, still remaining in Upper Peru, influenced this decision of the electors, we do not know; but Sucre's reluctance to assume the presidency seems to have been sincere, because it was constantly persisted in by him, and ended in his resigning the office, and returning to Colombia. The influence of the revolution at Lima, in January, 1827, when the Colombian troops there overturned the government of Bolivar, and the people trampled under foot the Bolivian code, was of course felt in Bolivia. But Sucre endeavored to guard against the example being followed in Bolivia, and at the same time gave the strongest assurances to the new government of Peru, of his determination to maintain a strict neutrality. This did not prevent uneasiness and disturbances from growing up, which eventuated in a serious insurrection, and an attack upon Suere, in which he was dangerously wounded, and lost an arm. If his resolution had not already been taken, these events would have served to hasten his departure, with that of the auxiliary Colombian army, which took place in August, 1828, in consequence of some hostile movements of the anti-Colombian party, aided by general Gamarra, from Peru. Notwithstanding this reverse in Bolivia, fortune soon threw a new field of distinction in the way of Sucre, in the war which now broke out between Peru and Colombia. He was made commander of the Colombian army of the south, and political chief of the southern departments of the Colombian republic, and led the troops in the series of military operations which terminated in the battle of Tarqui, and the humiliating defeat and

capitulation of the Peruvians under general La Mar, Feb. 26, 1829. Sucre became a member of the constituent congress of 1830, and, on his return to Quito from that body, was assassinated in the neighborhood of Pasto, in June, 1830, whether by private enemies among the Pastusos, or by the instigation of some of his political rivals, is not ascertained. It probably was the act of some of the Pastusos, who remembered the severities which the Colombian army inflicted on them in the campaign of 1822, under the orders of Sucre.

SUDERMANNLAND. (See Sweden.)

SUEABORG, OF SWEABORG; the northern Gibraltar; a fortress of Russian Finland, on the gulf of Finland; three miles south of Helsingfors; population, exclusive of the garrison, 3500. The harbor is capable of containing seventy men-of-war, easily defended by batteries that sweep the channel forming the only entranco for large ships. It is formed by several small islands, of which the principal, called Margoe, contains the arsenals, docks, basins, and magazines for fitting out or repairing men-of-war.

SUETONIUS. Caius Suetonius Tranquillus, a Roman writer, born of a plebeian family, flourished about 100 A. D. Little is known of the circumstances of his life. He distinguished himself as an advocate, obtained the tribuneship through the influence of Pliny the younger, and was appointed secretary (magister epistolarum) to the emperor Adrian. From an expression of Spartian in his Life of Adrian, we learn that Suetonius lost this place, on account of his intimacy with the empress Sabina; but the particulars of the affair are unknown to us. Of the works of Suetonius, only the Lives of the Twelve Cæsars, and Notices of celebrated Grammarians, Rhetoricians and Poets, are yet extant. The former work gives an interesting account of the private life and personal character of the twelve first Roman emperors, from Julius Cæsar to Domitian, and is of great value to us from the light which it throws on domestic manners and customs. The best editions of Suetonius are those of Pitiscus (1714), Burmann (1736), Oudendorp (1751), Wolf (1802), and Baumgarten-Crusius (1816 seq.) There is an English translation by Thompson.

SUEUR, LE. (See Lesueur.)

SUEVI; the general name of a number of united tribes, who, before the Christian era, inhabited the greater part of Germany. The Hermunduri, Seminones, Lombards,

Angles, Vandals, Burgundians, Rugii and Heruli, were the most important, at least the most known. In Cæsar's time, they advanced to the Neckar and the Rhine. Tacitus says that their name was derived from the cue in which they tied their hair. In the great migration of the northern nations, the Suevi joined the Alans, entered Gaul, and, in 409, Spain. After the Vandals had gone to Africa, the Suevi spread as far as Portugal. The Visigoths overcame them entirely in 586, and their empire and name disappeared from Spanish history. Those of them who remained in Germany were the ancestors of the present Suabians.

SUEZ, a city of Egypt, on the borders of Arabia (lon. 32° 23′ E.; lat. 29° 59 N.), is remarkable for its situation at the north end of the Red sea, and on the south border of the isthmus to which it gives name. It was formerly a flourishing mart, being at once the emporium of the trade with India, and the rendezvous of the numberless pilgrims, who, from various parts of the Turkish empire, resorted to Mecca. The assemblage of these, though the stationary population was never large, produced an immense crowd. When Niebuhr was there, Suez appeared to him as populous as Cairo. Since that time, it has greatly declined, in consequence both of the diminution of the general trade of the Red sea, and of the concourse to Mecca. It also sustained great injury from the French. The population is now only about 500. Suez, though a maritime place, is so situated that vessels cannot approach nearer than two and a half miles. The surrounding country is a mere bed of rock, slightly covered with sand. It is, however, the channel of much of the trade of Cairo to Arabia and India, and of the whole of that to Syria and Palestine. It is without walls; has 500 stone houses, of which more than one half were deEtroyed by the French, and still continue in ruins. The canal which formerly connected the gulf of Suez with the Nile, is now choked up.

SUFFETES. (See Carthage, vol. ii., p. 544.)

SUFFOCATION. The three ordinary modes of suffocation, or death by the interruption of the breath, are, hanging, drowning, and the respiration of fixed air, or carbonic acid gas. The came result takes place from either of these causes, which is described under the article Drowning, and the same process is required for the restoration of animation. In the instance of suffocation by carbonic

acid air, whether arising from mines, limekilns, or vats of fermenting liquor, the vital powers become more speedily extinct.

SUFFRAGANS.

p. 115.)

(See Bishops, vol. ii,

SUFFRAGIUM (Latin for vote; hence the English suffrage), with the Romans, signified particularly the vote which every Roman citizen had a right to give in the comitia, in regard to the introduction or abolition of laws, the appointment to offices, or any similar business. The citizens assembled, on such occasions, in the Campus Martius, every one in his century, which proceeded in its turn to the ovile, the place assigned for voting. At the entrance there were small bridges, upon which certain persons (diribitores) gavo them small ballots; if a new law was to be introduced, two ballots, one with the letters U. R. (Uti rogas, Let it be as proposed), the other with the letter A. (Antiquo, Ï leave it as it is); or, if an officer was to be chosen, as many ballots were given as there were candidates. The majority then decided.

SUFISM; the pantheistic mysticism of the East, which strives for the highest illumination of the mind, the most perfect calmness of the soul, and the union of it with God, by an ascetic life, and the subjugation of the appetites. This pantheism, clothed in a mystico-religious garb, has been professed, since the ninth and tenth centuries, by a sect which at present is gaining adherents continually, among the more cultivated Mohammedans, particularly in Persia and India, and about twelve years ago, comprehended 80,000 disciples in Persia, who had renounced Mohammedanism. One of the most zealous Sufis is the Arabian Azzeddin, born at Jerusalem, in the twelfth century, whose work Birds and Flowers, a moral allegory, has been translated by Garcia de Tassy (Paris, 1821). All religious persons who live together in a monastic way, devoted to an ascetic life, are called in the East Sufis. Some have derived this word froin the circumstance that they dress in wool only; but Joseph von Hammer (q. v.) has disproved this derivation, in the Vienna Journal of Art, Literature, the Theatre, &c. (1828, No.59), and maintains that the name Soft is related to the Greek copos, wise, and copos, clear, on account of the mirror which the Sofi carried as a symbol, as well as to the Arabian safi (pure). The Arabians had, from the earliest times, an inclination to a life of religious comtempla

tion and monastic solitude. Hence as early as under the first caliphs, religious fraternities were formed, which renounced every thing earthly. As the four orthodox Mohammedan sects established several systems of scholastic philosophy, and a number of monkish orders grew up, in the second century of the Hegira, devout persons, perplexed by this labyrinth of discordant theological opinions, found consolation in pious mysticism. This was the origin of the Sufis, whose idea of a mystical union of man with God (which, however, is not founded in the doctrines of Mohammedanism, but, according to Langlès, Reiske, Hammer, and Malcolm, is of Indian origin) gave rise to fanaticism, similar to that of the Christian mystics. The Sufis teach their doctrine under the images of love, wine, intoxication, fire, &c.; and the songs of Hafiz (q. v.), one of the most distinguished Sufis, which seem to be Anacreontic strains in praise of love and wine, should rather be considered as setting forth the mystic doctrines of his sect. Even the dances of the Mohammedan monks have a mystic meaning. By the Devil, the Sufis generally understand the sensual appetite; they acknowledge no other devil than the darkness of the soul, unenlightened by truth. In the first volume of the Transactions of the learned society at Bombay (London, 1819) is an important treatise on the mystic doctrine of the Sufis, by Graham. The doctrines of the Oriental mystics have also been illustrated by Silvestre de Sacy, in the Pendnameh, by Erskine, in several treatises in the Bombay Transactions, by Hammer, in his History of Persian Belles-lettres (under the heads of Dschelaleddin, Rumi, and Dschami), and particularly by Tholuck, in his Sufismus Persarum, &c. (Berlin, 1821), from Oriental manuscripts. The most important information on this subject is contained in the Drops of the Well of Life, a Persian work, translated into Turkish, and published, in 1820 (Hegira 1236), at Constantinople (printed at Scutari), a work of the greatest authority with the Persians and Turks. (See Hammer's remarks in the Leipsic Literary Gazette of 1822, p. 2054.) Hussein, known under the name of Sufi, wrote a History of the most famous Sheiks of the Order of the Dervises (Nacshbendi) in the year 1503 (Hegira 909) The order of Nacshbendi originated, indeed, as late as the time of sultan Osman (1319; Hegira 709); but all the Mohammedan religious orders trace their doctrines, and their claims to mystic

power (transmitted by the communication of the breath and mantle), to Abubeker and Ali, the disciples of the prophet. Mohammed had said, indeed, "There is no monasticism in the Islam;" but the spirit of monasticism, which originally had its seat in India and Upper Asia, soon penetrated into his religion, when the Arabians, having become acquainted with Indian, Greek and Persian literature, began to devote themselves to study and contemplation. Thus originated the Mohammedan ascetics. But the pantheistic doctrine of the modern Sufis, subsequently introduced, agrees so remarkably with the doctrine of the Indian Vedanta, that the Indian origin of Sufism cannot be denied.

SUGAR. This important substance is a constituent part of a number of plants. It is afforded especially by the sugar-cane, the maple, and the beet. When the cana is ripe, it is cut down, and crushed between iron cylinders, moved by the steam-engine, water, or animal strength. The juice is received in a shallow trough, placed beneath the cylinders; whence it is conveyed into boilers, where it is heated with lime, care being taken to remove the scum as it rises. After having undergone considerable evaporation, it is called syrup, and is poured into a vessel called the cooler, where it is agitated with wooden stirrers, which break the crust as it forms on the surface. It is afterwards poured into casks, to accelerate its cooling; and, while it is still warm, it is conveyed into barrels, standing upright over a cistern, and pierced through their bottom with several holes, stopped with cane. The syrup, which is not condensed, filters through these canes, into the cistern beneath, and leaves the sugar in the state called Muscovado. This sugar is yellow, and is further purified by various process es, as that of boiling with bullock's blood, or with animal charcoal (bone black): and the passing of the syrup through a system of canvass filters, aided by the intermixture with it of a small quantity of pasty, gypsum and alumina, made by saturating a solution of alum with quicklime. Loaf sugar is procured by putting the sugar, after it has been thus purified, into unglazed, earthen, conical-shaped vessels, having a hole at the apex, but placed in an inverted position: the base, after the sugar is poured in, is covered with clay. When thus drained of its impurities, it is taken out of the mould, wrapped in paper, and dried or baked in an oven. It is now loaf sugar, and, according to the number of