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sought by the employment of a number of signalmen stationed along the line in sight of each other; and the platelayers are sometimes made to perform a similar duty on special occasions in this country. But the rule most commonly laid down is, that the trains shall be kept five minutes apart from one another by the regular signalmen at the stations, junctions, level-crossings, and sidings which they have to pass. As it is stated in some of the books of printed regulations, the danger-signal is to be kept up for five minutes, and the caution-signal for five minutes longer, after the passage of a train. This rule is frequently not carried out in practice, even in places where it is supposed to remain in force; and it often proves ineffectual when it is acted upon. Indeed, much longer intervals of time between the trains are insufficient in many cases to prevent them from coming into collision with one another; and on some occasions they have been so started that one has been due to overtake another, and that collisions have in this way resulted, when longer intervals have been observed. The rates of speed are so different, varying from sixty miles an hour with fast trains, to eight or ten miles an hour, or even less, with slow trains, that very long intervals of time are sometimes required to enable one train to keep out of the way of another, according to the distance that they have to run without a stoppage. At night, too, there are fewer signalmen on duty, and there is less security in that respect than by day. Fogs occur, also; mineral trains are too heavy for their engines; rails are slippery; the view is obstructed on particular parts of the line; and one train breaks down, or travels slowly for some distance, until, at an unlucky moment, it is caught up and run into by a train which is following at full speed and in fancied security.

It was soon found out that some better means than an interval of time was required in tunnels, where, from the accumulation of steam and smoke, an engine-driver was never certain of seeing ten yards before him; and accordingly, a signalman was placed at each end of the longest and most dangerous tunnels, with a telegraph, to prevent more than one train from being in them upon the same line of rails at one time. As the traffic increased, as the stoppages diminished or became less regular, and as the speeds became higher and more various, it was found necessary to provide protection in a similar manner for open portions of railway; and the system of working by telegraph, as it is called, though it still requires great extension, has thus been introduced with more or less modification, on some of the worst parts of most of the great lines. Many accidents have occurred in

spite of it, from mistakes and misunderstandings between the signalmen, either in consequence of the defects under which it has been worked, or from the inefficiency of the servants who have been placed in charge of the telegraph-instruments, or else from their having been employed upon other duties incompatible with proper attention to their instruments; but when a good system of telegraph-working is adopted, and when responsible servants are employed, it is capable of affording a very high degree of security, and of materially assisting at the same time in the working of the traffic.

The traffic upon some of the great lines is now, however, so crowded at particular times, that the trains cannot, it is alleged, be kept even two miles (which, at sixty miles an hour, is two minutes) apart. The telegraphic lengths into which they have been divided are, therefore, under certain restrictions as to warning or speed, made to accommodate more than one train at a time on the same line of rails; and the telegraph-huts, which have been established at distances of about two miles from each other, are thus only available for obtaining a doubtful security. It is impossible to do otherwise than dread some serious accident from such a state of things, whilst it is plain that the system observed on other lines, under which one train only is permitted to be upon each length at a time, and an interval of space is absolutely maintained between every two trains, provides the best chance of safety.

As the result of the most recent experience in working the trains by telegraph, it appears that the telegraph-huts should be fitted up as follows:-One train-needle should be exclusively devoted to each line of rails in each direction, and one talkingneedle should also be supplied for the use of the signalman in each direction. Two double- and two single-needle instruments are therefore required in each intermediate telegraph-hut, for working a double line of rails. The train-needles should indicate "line-blocked' or 'line-clear' only, and should always be pegged over to one of those indications. The talking-needles should be of the ordinary description, and should be employed for all necessary messages, as well as for giving notice of the approach of trains, for describing them, for reporting anything that may be observed to be wrong in them, and for performing other duties required by local circumstances. The instruments should respectively be placed opposite to the directions in which they work, in huts of ample dimensions, and convenient for the men. Clocks should be provided for their use, and record-books, in which they should enter the time at which each train is signalled to

them

them and from them. It is better that tunnels should be included in telegraph lengths of this description, than that they should be protected by signalmen at each end of them.

Collisions at the junctions of two or more lines of rails are caused, either by a mistake of the signalman in charge of them, or by the disobedience of the driver of an engine or train to the signals which are exhibited to him, or by a want of sufficient signals, or of good arrangements for working the signals and points.

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The best junctions are now fitted up with raised stages for the accommodation of the signalmen, on which all the signal-levers and point-handles are collected together, and from which they can be conveniently worked. Each signalman has a main-signal at his box, and a distant-signal (worked by a wire) from 600 to 900 yards away from it, applicable to each line of rails under his control. He keeps his signals, on most lines, at danger,' and only lowers them as may be necessary for the passage of a train. An admirable improvement has been introduced of late, of so connecting the points and signals with each other, that the points may be moved freely in either direction as long as the signals are kept at danger;' that the points are fixed in their proper positions when a signal is lowered to allow a train to pass; and that the signals cannot be so lowered until the points have been first turned in the right direction. A signalman is thus prevented from making any mistake which can lead to an accident; and as the signals are weighted to fly to danger' in the event of any failure of the machinery for working them, the only risk to be apprehended is from the drivers not obeying the signals made to them, from their miscalculating the distance in which they can stop their trains, or from their not being provided with sufficient break-power.

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On one of the great lines on which junctions are very numerous, the inferior system has been adopted of having one semaphore-post only, with two arms on it, at each junction-box; and of keeping the distant-signals applicable to the main line at all right,' instead of at danger.' This system has led to some accidents. The more rational and common practice is to employ as many junction-signals as there are lines of way, to prevent the engine-drivers from being misled, or from mistaking the signals made to them. For this purpose each junction-box is generally provided with two semaphore-posts, each of which has two arms. Four arms on one post would, of course, answer the same end. For junctions, as well as at stations and other places where fixed signals are required, semaphore signals are now generally admitted to be superior to any other of the numerous kinds in

use,

use, and they are most commonly employed. They would, no doubt, become universal if it were not thought advisable on some of the established lines to adhere to the different systems that have been already adopted.

Collisions on single lines, from trains meeting one another while travelling in opposite directions, are due to recklessness, or mistakes, or misunderstandings, under defective systems of working. There can be no safety from this class of accident unless stringent regulations be adopted for preventing trains from being started in opposite directions at the same time.

Various systems of working have been employed. On some single lines the trains are worked by the printed time-tables as long as they are tolerably punctual, without any other precaution than adherence to the crossing-places therein prescribed; and any alterations in those crossing-places, which are rendered necessary by irregularities in the traffic, are arranged by telegraph between the station-masters or persons temporarily in charge of the stations, on their own responsibility. This system has proved ineffectual, in consequence either of want of intelligence or want of caution on the part of those in charge of the stations, or else of misunderstandings between the station-masters and others.

On a railway in the West of England, the system was adopted of making one officer (the locomotive-superintendent) responsible, in the event of deviations from the time-tables, for arranging fresh places of crossing for the trains; similarly to the American plan of employing a train-despatcher for regulating the traffic. In this case, distinct instructions were required to be sent by the locomotive-superintendent himself, to station-masters, guards, and all parties concerned in any alterations that were effected. As the traffic of the line was very heavy, this officer had a complicated task to perform, more particularly when extra trains were run at the same time that the ordinary traffic was irregular. A collision with loss of life occurred under this system, partly in consequence of the insertion of the word 'at' in the copy of a telegraph-message, which was not as explicit as it might have been; and partly from the misunderstandings to which this trifling addition led.

On a railway in the north of Scotland, the locomotive-superintendent was himself killed in a collision which occurred between an engine on which he was riding in one direction, and a train which was proceeding under his general instructions (though he did not expect it on that particular occasion) in the opposite direction.

On a railway in Staffordshire, the time-tables were found to be so arranged that if they had been followed the trains must have

come

come six times a day into collision with one another on a portion of single line.

When a portion of double line is worked temporarily as a single line, in consequence of renewals, repairs, or obstructions, a pilot-man or pilot-engine is usually employed to start, or accompany each train; but even under this system a fatal collision occurred not long since. It turned out that the pilot-man was not sufficiently distinguishable by night, that a fixed main-signal was wanting at the end of the single line, and that the discipline had not been sufficiently strict.

There are three systems under which single lines have hitherto been safely worked. The first and best, which, when it can be rigidly carried out, prevents all possibility of collision, and makes a single line safer than a double one, is that of working with one engine only, or two coupled together, at a time. The second, and next best, is that of employing what is called a 'train-staff' for the regulation of the traffic. The 'train-staff' was at first a sort of truncheon, with which, when a guard was armed, he was at liberty to proceed over the portion of line to which it belonged, in either direction. It is now made in various forms, from that of a small brass case containing a key, and fastened by a strap over the guard's shoulder, to that of a staff five feet long, or of a signal placed in a socket (similar to a lamp socket) on the engine or tender. The mode in which it is applied is as follows:

A single line is divided into any convenient number of lengths for the purposes of working; and to each length is appointed a separate train-staff,' distinct in form and colour from those on the other lengths. No train is permitted, under any circumstances whatever, to start from the terminal station of a length unless the staff belonging to the portion of line over which it is about to travel is present. If two or three trains are waiting to proceed in the same direction, they are all provided with traintickets, corresponding in colour and form to the staff, except the last, which is accompanied by the staff itself. The traintickets are only procurable at the terminal stations of the staff, and can only be obtained at these by means of the staff; as they are contained in a box, also similar in colour, of which the staff forms the key, or which is opened by a key attached to the staff. During the operation of ballasting, or when an accident happens, the staff is still supreme. It must be sent for an assisting engine, or must accompany the ballast engine; and no officer or person in authority can send forward an engine or train during its absence; but the most hurried director or the most impatient manager must, as well as the third-class passenger, await its

return.

Vol. 111.-No. 221.

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