been seized by usurpers and the people are deprived alike of the rights and of the protection which a republican government is designed to secure, makes the guarantee itself the shield of the oppressor and the menace of the down-trodden.

The guarantee is, then, not of the form only, but of the substance, the thing itself, as well. The republican government guaranteed is a government existing and operating in harmony with the American idea as set forth in our Constitutions, both State and national, or accepted universally and by many successive generations.

Some of the essential features of a republican form of government are these: 1. All just powers are derived from the consent of the governed. 2. The exercise of those powers is by representative men selected by the people, either directly by election or indirectly by appointment. 3. The recognition in the Constitution of the existence of a body of men entitled to the elective franchise. 4. Efficient means for the general and equal enjoyment of the right by all of the class so recognized. 5. Obedience to the will of the majority when, agreeably to the Constitution, that will has been ascertained.

The Congress, including the President, is the United States, for the purpose of making good the guarantee contained in the Constitution; and when in any State the essential qualities of a republican government are wanting, or the people are generally and systematically deprived of those rights and privileges which are elemental in our republican system, and when all milder means have failed to remedy the evils, it then becomes a duty to assert the power of the United States under the clause of the Constitution quoted, and, by such means as may be adequate, secure to the people a republican government as a practical, existing fact.

Although many years have passed since the outrages in the South assumed national importance, there is still ground for hope that order may be reëstablished, and the equal rights of citizens everywhere recognized; but it is well in this exigency to assert the existence and unfold the nature of a power adequate to the evil we now confront.

The Republican party bears no hostility to the South as a section. If we are a sectional party, and in one sense we are a sectional party, the circumstance is due to the fact that, in the South, the Republican forces are in a state of duress, and their voice is nowhere heard, nor is their power anywhere felt.

When, however, there shall be freedom of speech, of the press,

and of the ballot, the Republican party will exert every constitutional power for the renovation of the waste places in the South. Whatever can be done, under the Constitution, for the improvement of its rivers and its harbors, for the rebuilding of its levees, for the development of its agriculture, for the extension of its manufactures, for the enlargement of its educational facilities, will be done by the Republican party without delay and without grudging. But all this can be done, and will be done, for those communities and States only where the equality of all men before the law is a living, practical fact. The two great duties of the Republican party are the protection of the rights of laboring men in the South and the protection of the industry of laboring men in the North. In fine, the two duties are co-related. The exodus teaches that injustice in the South is destined to subject the laborer in the North to an unnecessary and unhealthy competition, while the South is at the same time deprived of the labor essential to its own prosperity and to the prosperity of manufactures in America and Europe.

GEORGE S. BOUTWELL.

DISCOVERIES AT OLYMPIA.

THE history of the Hellenes is distinguished by a twofold trait, namely: on the one hand, a lively sentiment of national unity, as against all other nations; and, on the other, a strong sense of individuality in the several communities and cities. The sentiment of national unity found expression in the ancient leagues or amphyctioniæ, by which the Hellenes were welded into one people. When these had lost their political significance, the festivals of the gods remained as the most effectual bond of union. Now, of all these festivals none was of greater importance for the history of the Hellenic race than that of Zeus, celebrated in the valley of the Alpheios, where the river issues from the Arcadian mountains, and where, at the foot of the heights of Olympus, lies a plain equaled by but few in Greece for extent, accessible from the interior, as also from the neighboring coast and from the transmarine colonies in the west. Yet the national importance of Olympia resulted not from its situation, but from a series of historic developments.

On the west coast of the Morea we find after the Doric migration two ancient states standing side by side, namely, Pisa, on the Alpheios, and Elis, on the Peneios, which latter stream waters the lowlands to the north. These two neighbor states, held together as they were in peace by their common worship of the goddess Hera, became still more firmly united when, impelled by a Delphic oracle, certain Achaian families settled at Pisa, and there introduced the worship of Pelops, whose rank among heroes was as that of Zeus among gods. In the plain before the gates of Pisa there was an oracle of Zeus, much frequented by strangers. It was thus that the town first acquired prominence; and at one time Elis and Pisa honored Olympian Zeus by holding festivals and games in common. But their pacific relations were disturbed by the dissensions which broke up the Peloponnesian states into distinct groups. Elis allied

itself to Sparta, which thus strove to extend its influence over the states on the west coast. Pisa united with Arcadia and Messenia. After a stubborn resistance, the Pisans were finally vanquished (about 600 B. c.), their city destroyed, their commonwealth annihilated, and ever afterward the Eleans enjoyed the exclusive right of conducting the festivals, while Sparta, as the chief power of the peninsula, insured to the whole region the inviolability of its frontiers. Olympia became a place of meeting for all the Peloponnesus; and as the Peloponnesus, down to the time of the Persian wars, led all Greece, Olympia came to be the center both of the mother-country and of the colonies. Every five years the envoys of the Eleans went forth to proclaim the festival, which was to begin at the first full moon after the summer solstice; and ambassadors, spectators, and athletes came, in answer to the summons, from every part of the world inhabited by Greeks. The Eleans made it a point of honor to add continually new attractions to the national festival, and to decorate the site on which it was held with the statues of victors, votive offerings, and monuments of every kind. Every Hellenic community, at home or abroad, desired to be represented here; and, when Hellenic freedom was extinguished, the conquerors of the Hellenes strove to efface the memory of the struggle by making a show of Hellenic culture at Olympia. This was the policy of both the Macedonians and the Romans. The Roman emperors looked on Olympia as the place above all others where Hellenic and Italian civilization could best be amalgamated. The Olympic games survived the Christian era, nor was it till the close of the fourth century that they ceased. In the year 395 the Emperor Theodosius decreed their discontinuance; in the following year came the Goths under Alaric, who utterly destroyed here a very forest of bronze statuary. The buildings still remained intact, but their destruction began when the Byzantines, as a defense against a new barbaric invasion, built a fortress inclosing the temple of Zeus, taking the materials from the still standing edifices. Whatever buildings were then left erect were soon afterward overthrown by earthquakes in the fifth century; finally. Olympia was buried beneath mud and débris by the overflow of the rivers and the washing of the hillsides.

In modern times the plain has been cultivated in vineyards and corn-fields, but uninhabited; and so it came about that, among all the famous sites of the ancient world, Olympia was one of the few where no new settlement interferes to prevent a thorough exploration of the ground. But nowhere else can you find so many remains of

Grecian civilization belonging to every age and to every region. It was on this account that, from his early years, it was a passion with Winckelmann to explore Olympia.

The first attempt was made by the French, when, after the battle of Navarino, Marshal Maison's troops occupied the peninsula. Then it was (May, 1829) that those remains of statuary were found which are to be seen in the Louvre. The results then obtained insured in advance the success of the thorough exploration which began in 1875 under the auspices of the Imperial German Government. In October of that year the temple of Zeus was brought to light, and for the five years that have since elapsed, during the months (October to May) when work can be carried on, the exploration has proceeded, at an annual expense of 150,000 marks; for last year the Emperor allowed an additional grant of 80,000 marks. Let us now see what is the total result in this year 1880.

Olympia consists of two very distinct parts, namely, the precinct of Zeus, and the edifices lying without the same. The precinct of Zeus, known also as the Altis, and the Sacred Grove, is a walled inclosure, forming an irregular quadrangle, with a mean length of 4,000 feet from east to west (parallel with the river), and a mean width of 2,000 feet from north to south (from the foot of the mountain to the river). Within this inclosure stood the altars, temples, sanctuaries, treasuries, and other buildings for the use of the officials, and for the reception of the city's guests attending the festival. The space not occupied by these structures was filled with statues and votive offerings, which, as time went on, were multiplied till at last only the roadways traversing Altis were free. Pausanias has left us a precise description of Altis (written A. D. 173), which is still ex

tant.

Olympia now lies before us like an open book. We know more about it than about any other spot in ancient Greece. The Abbé Barthélemy might now, with full assurance, point out to the young Anacharsis the notable monuments of the precinct of Zeus.

This precinct of Zeus may be considered as divided into two parts, a northern and a southern. In the southern portion the temple of Zeus forms the central point, around which are grouped the lesser monuments. The temple was never entirely covered with débris, but not till now could its whole ground-plan be seen. was a building in character like the Parthenon, but still more imposing, for it had only six columns on its narrower façades, making its architrave blocks so much more massive. There still remains in

It