landholder, whom he compelled to share with him the produce of his grounds. Those of the ancient slaves, who remained in Italy, were in the same condition: but free cultivators, compelled to acknowledge a German or Scythian master, who was called their host, were constrained themselves to learn to work in cultivating land for vineyards and oliveyards, for their subsistence. Thus they gradually improved the arts of agriculture, and brought them to a high degree of perfection. Where the labour of free men was brought in comparison with that of slaves, its superiority was too striking not to engage the attention of their barbarous masters. The farmer, descended in general from the ancient Roman proprietors, lived with his family on half the produce of the land he cultivated; while the slaves, whom they were under the necessity of supporting, through their indolence and negligence, diminished the productive powers, and consumed twice as much as they produced: the barbarians, therefore, made the experiment of granting them their liberty and a portion of waste laud to cultivate for themselves. The lords of the soil were daily more and more convinced that this was the most economical method of supporting their labourers, and of securing to themselves a due proportion of advantage; giving them an interest in their labours inspired them with zeal, activity, and industry, which compulsion never could have produced, and, in consequence, vast numbers of slaves were liberated. The laws did not interfere in the abolition of slavery; the shameful commerce in the human species was not prohibited, yet slavery gradually disappeared. Towards the close of the sixteenth century, slaves were seen in the houses, but none

in the fields. Soldiers abusing their victories, sometimes sold all the inhabitants of a village taken by storm; and the popes, in their boundless resentments, often condemned all their subjects in a hostile state to be reduced to slavery, authorizing all who could seize to sell them; but those who bought these captives, soon found that it was more to their interest to grant them their liberty for money, and employ them as hired servants, than to afford them subsistence for the grudging labour of slavery: thus all traces of slavery in Italy gradually disappeared, excepting those which fanaticism perpetuated in spite of all personal interest. Captives taken from the Moors and Turks were, in hatred of their religion, enchained in galleys, although they cost the state much more than the maintenance of so many free men. Fanaticism has made many attempts to revive slavery; and to the Portuguese missionaries, of the fifteenth century, may be ascribed the origin of those infamous expeditions to the west of Africa for enslaving negroes, which have been the disgrace of Europe almost to the present day. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, many thousands of Jews and Moors were condemned to slavery; but personal interest, more powerful than the zeal of persecuting clergy, constantly set free those whom the church enslaved. In our days, slavery, in any form, is continued in eastern Europe, from Russia to Hungary, only because the proprietors of land have not considered the superior profit arising from the labour of free men. Instead, therefore, of dividing with their servants the produce of the earth, by which means the interest of each party would be promoted, the slaves are compelled to labour for their masters half their time: in

consequence, on those days of the week that are the right of the master, no more activity, zeal, and intelligence, are exerted, than are to be expected from slaves; but on the days appropriated to the interests of himself and family, the slave discovers the energy and intelligence of a free man.

With these remaining exceptions, slavery is happily banished from Europe; and we cannot but anticipate that by the progress of christian principles, liberal views, and enlightened policy, every remaining vestige of the system will soon be swept

away.

Before we enter on the subject of negro slavery, we may just observe that slavery is tolerated in the East Indies, but under mild and humane regulations, which have, in fact, nearly led to its disuse as an institution. Some crimes expose the criminal to perpetual slavery, not to a private master, but to the state. Such a slave can never redeem himself or be enfranchised. A kind of slavery may be entered into by voluntary contract; but the only involuntary causes of bondage to a private master are, captivity in war; birth of enslaved parents; also, in case of an infant found by chance, where infants are frequently exposed and left to perish, if a benevolent individual should rescue and rear the foundling, he is entitled to his service when of an age to labour, The master is allowed to inflict on his slave corporeal punishment, but he is restricted as to the use of a lash or bamboo-twig, inflicted on any part of the body where no dangerous hurt is likely to happen; but if a person scourges a slave beyond this limitation he is liable to suffer the punishment of a thief. The same discipline a

K

man is permitted to exercise on his wife, son, pupil, or younger brother. Every facility is afforded for the redemption of slaves. If a Gentoo, during a famine, has his life preserved in consideration of becoming the slave of his benefactor, he is entitled to redeem himself on payment to his master of the value of the food received in time of necessity, with the addition of two head of cattle; or he who parts with his liberty for the payment of a debt, is entitled to freedom when that debt is discharged. Where such mild and humane laws restrict the condition of slavery, its worst horrors are unknown, and it may be hoped that its very form will speedily cease to exist.

SECT. X.—NEGRO SLAVERY.

Geography and History of Africa and the West Indies.

Africa is a quarter of the Globe which is considerably larger than Europe, but not so large as Asia or America. Its utinost length is about four thousand nine hundred and eighty miles; and its greatest width about four thousand seven hundred and ninety miles. Its shape is irregular: its greatest width about the middle; the upper or northern part forming half of an irregular circle, and the lower or southern part gradually tapering to a point, called the Cape of Good Hope. In a map or chart of the world, it will be found just below or to the south of Europe. Except one small neck of land, called the Isthmus of Suez, by which it is joined to Asia, Africa is entirely surrounded by water: the Mediterranean Sea flows between it and

Europe on the north; the vast Atlantic between it and America on the West. Its southern point, called the Cape of Good Hope, reaches the Indian Ocean, which is also its eastern boundary on the lower or southern half. The upper or northern half of Africa, is divided, on its eastern coast, from Asia, by the Red Sea and Straits of Babelmandel, which meet the Arabian Sea or Indian Ocean.

The principal part of Africa lies in the torrid zone, and is excessively hot; and the inhabitants are totally unacquainted with hail, rain, and snow. Those parts, however, that lie near the coast, or in valleys, and on the banks of the rivers, are very fertile and productive, and the country in general is capable of great improvement by cultivation.

Its great rivers are the Nile and the Niger, both of which annually overflow their banks and fertilize the surrounding country. The Gambia and Senegal rivers are branches of the Niger, and fall into the Atlantic. The Nile flows from Abyssinia through Egypt, and discharges itself into the Mediterranean Sea. The Niger runs through a tract of land, not less than three thousand miles, and is navigable into the very heart of Africa.

There are several vast ridges of mountains, which, however, are but little known to European travellers. Those called Atlas, are supposed almost to divide the continent from east to west. The Mountains of the Moon, so called on account of their great height, are situated in Abyssinia. The Mountains of Sierra Leone, so called from their abounding with lions, divide Negroland from Guinea, and extend to Ethiopia. The Mountains of God, in the centre, are so called from their being subject to perpetual thunder and