to cultivate its own share of land and to do its own work. The only social unit that is recognized is a man and his wife, and is styled "a house." "A house" is entitled to a kitchen-garden, and to a proportion of woodland to supply fuel for domestic purposes. The community sets apart a certain proportion of land to be held in common by its members for the pasturage of cattle. The land is divided among "the houses"—to be re-divided again at the expiration of three years. When the land is divided, a sort of village Parliament is held in the open air. The land is divided among "the houses" exclusively-the bachelor receiving nothing. If the bachelor wishes land he must marry, and thus with his wife become a "house." In the division of the land the richness of the soil and its location are considered. At the communal councils the men are all peers. In many cases, women— except heiresses and wives whose husbands are away from the mir—are not allowed to take part in the discussions. A so-called Elder is elected to act as a sort of chief in the community. He is clothed with, in some respects, despotic power. His powers are somewhat unclassified and are sometimes great. He is the only man who can lawfully strike any one. He has been, however, forbidden by a decree of the imperial government to flog a woman. The people, on their part, can, when they are displeased with an Elder, remove him and appoint another man in his place. The Elder is held responsible by the imperial government for the good behavior of every one living in the mir. He it is who must carry out imperial mandates. The citizens of these Russian village-democracies have inherited from quite ancient times various local rights which it would be unwise for the imperial government to abridge. Evil-doers in these peasant republics are tried before their own councils,

where punishments, not being regulated by law, are sometimes very cruel. The people have the right to call meetings, to propose measures, and to provide in a general way for the welfare of their commune. If a peasant wishes to take a journey, he must get permission to do so from the Elder. Although in the Russian mir forms of liberty are sometimes sadly blended with forms of despotism, the mir is a feature of Russian civilization which is one of the secrets of Russia's greatness. A large majority of the people of Russia are peasants and members of mirs. The people who live in cities of course live under a form of government of a different kind. A number of mirs lying contiguous to each other form a volost, which in English means a canton." The canton is similar in some respects to a county in an American State. In recent years another division, also designed to be in a measure self-governing, has been introduced into Russia.

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If a Russian Minister of War wishes to raise money by taxation, or to summon men to the Russian standard, he can send word to the mir or to the canton to raise and to send him its proportion of men and money. The councils held in the little communes scattered over Russia, notwithstanding criticisms which an American might well make respecting them, save the imperial government much trouble. A nation with even such an imperfect system of local government as have a large proportion of the people of Russia, could be, there is reason to believe, highly raised in the scale of civilization, should its central government enact wise laws encour aging the people to establish and to maintain, in their communes and towns, good schools for their youth and libraries for themselves.

A form of local government which captivated Jefferson is what is known as the township system of New England.

A visitor to the New England States, driving through their beautiful rural districts, sometimes passes a neat, although perhaps an humble, building, which, he may be told, is called the Town Meeting Hall. At a certain season of the year he may have the pleasure--and it will be no ordinary pleasure-of witnessing the proceedings which take place at a township meeting. He can see the citizens of a neighborhood—many of whom are farmers— assemble in a neighborly and intelligent manner to promote the welfare of the little section of the State in which they reside.

A New England township may have three or four hundred, or several thousand, inhabitants. It may have only some farm-houses, or it may have a town within its borders. The township is, in the eye of the law, a corporation. Where representation in the State Legislature is by districts, the township is entitled to a representative in the lower house of the State Legislature. When the government of a New England State imposes a tax for the public welfare, each township is assessed, and duly raises, its proportion of the tax. It has been estimated that a New England township pays voluntarily in promoting its own welfare at least eight times as much as it pays for State purposes. Each township is expected to elect officers to perform various duties. Some of these officers are charged with attending to school matters, others give their attention to roads and bridges, others have imposed upon them the duty of assessing and collecting taxes, or are entrusted with such other responsibilities as the town meeting may lay upon them. A town-clerk is charged. with the care of the records of the proceeding of the town meeting-records which in time may become especially interesting to the historian. As the largest of nations are in danger of having controversies with each other respect

ing the exact boundaries of the territories over which they respectively have dominion,—controversies which at times have given rise to wars,-so might vexatious questions respecting the exact limits of townships give rise to difficulties of various kinds, did not the New England township carefully guard against such a danger to its peace. A certain class of officers are charged with the duty of seeing that each post which marks the boundaries of their little democracy is in its proper place. These officers must, within certain periods, make the circuit of the entire township. At a New England town meeting any citizen can speak upon questions of local interest. For example, he can point out to the meeting that it would be well to have a bridge built over a certain stream, or that a school-house should be built. Of course, a constable to bear the sword of justice is elected at a town meeting. Should extraordinary circumstances arise which make it necessary that men should defend their homes, or their State, or the great Republic of which their State is a subdivision, against an enemy, by a decree from the town meeting men could be assembled and equipped with arms in a well-nigh incredibly short time. Every township is an organization by itself, so complete that anarchy in a New England State is difficult to even imagine. If all the members of a New England State Legislature were captured by an enemy, township government would still continue. If an invader captured twenty townships, yet every twenty or thirty miles of a New England State would have a government of its own and would be prepared to offer organized resistance to its foe.

Should any one in a New England township happen to be injured when crossing a bridge or riding on a road, owing to the neglect of a public officer, he can sue the township in a court of law for damages. Although, as a

rule, only the officers, who are called selectmen, are expected to call a town meeting, yet should any ten citizens think it desirable that such a meeting should be held, they can, by uniting in making a formal request of a selectman, have such a meeting assembled. As a rule, at a meeting a selectman presides. The people are notified in advance of the character of the business which is to be transacted. Dignity and wisdom often characterize to a truly remarkable extent the debates which take place in these small, and at times very humble, parliamentary gatherings.

It has been found in New England-and, indeed, to a certain extent in all parts of the United States-that local government, when wisely established, often awakens the genius and energies of a people. The citizen is apt to become interested in a happy manner in public affairs. Every citizen is sensible of a degree of political importance, and feels that he is in a measure responsible for the well-being of the community in which he lives. Men gathering together at the township meeting, and having common interests, become acquainted with each other and ties of friendship are often formed. The people of New England can appeal to an experience dating from the days when New England was first visited by the Puritans, in support of the belief that communities are capable of themselves managing a certain class of affairs.

Jefferson greatly admired New England's system of local government. In a letter dated May 26th, 1810, to Governor Tyler, Jefferson wrote: "You wish to see me again in the Legislature, but this is impossible. * * * I have indeed two great measures at heart, without which no republic can maintain itself in strength. 1. That of general education, to enable every man to judge for himself what will secure or endanger his freedom.

2. To