tions, or any remains whatever of organized substances; and therefore are supposed to have been formed before the creation of animals or vegetables.-2. Transition rocks, which include those rocks that lie over the primitive, and are composed of the larger fragments of the primitive rocks. They contain graywacke, transition limestone, slate, sandstone, &c. Shells are sometimes found in them, but no remains of land animals or vegetables. It is supposed they were formed next after the primitive rocks, and after the creation of some kinds of organized beings.-3. Secondary rocks, which lie upon the transition rocks, and appear like deposites, composed of grains which once belonged to primitive rocks. The principal secondary formations are coal, chalk, secondary limestone, oolite, millstone, grit, &c. which contain petrifactions of animal and vegetable substances. 4. Tertiary strata, which consist of beds of clay, sand, marl, and the newer limestone deposites. These formations are considered as newer than the secondary, and contain abundance of fossil shells and plants, along with the bones of quadrupeds and fishes.-5. Volcanic and basaltic rocks, which owe their origin to volcanic fire, and are sometimes forced up to the surface of the earth in a melted state, by the action of subterraneous heat. The principal volcanic rocks are basalt, lava, and greenstone.—6. Alluvial strata, which include deposites that are made of broken strata, consisting of sand, mud, clay, pebbles, &c. which are formed by the currents of rivers, and other causes now in operation.

These classifications of rocks and formations might be illustrated by such figures as in the annexed cut, which is taken from Woodbridge's "System of Universal Geography," where Fig. 1. represents the strata of the earth, P the primary strata, T transition, S secondary, A Alluvial, B basaltic, V vein, b bed. Fig. 2, represents a section of the earth between latitude 40° and 45° north. In conjunction with such pictorial representations, a cabinet of materials should be procured, containing at least the following: quartz, mica, talc, feldspar, limestone, argillite, or slate, hornblend, gypsum and chlorite, which form what has been termed the alphabet of geology. Besides these, specimens should be procured of basalt, gneiss, greenstone, lava, porphyry, graywacke, and other substances mentioned above. About thirty specimens in all are sufficient for illustrating the classes of geology. Without an exhibition of these, in connection with geological descriptions, no definite ideas can be conveyed to the mind of the student on this subject.*

* Books on geology have, of late years, increased both in number and in the interesting nature of the discussions they ntain. The names of

SECTION VIII.-Astronomy.

Astronomy is a science which has for its object to explain the motions of the heavenly bodies, their various aspects, and the facts which have been ascertained in the planetary system, and throughout the region of the fixed stars. This is a subject of considerable interest and utility. It is intimately connected with geography, navigation, agriculture, commerce, chronology, and other arts and sciences, and has lent its aid to promote their improvement. The study of it is likewise attended with many pleasures and advantages in a moral, intellectual, and religious point of view. It expands the range of the human intellect, and unfolds to our view the most striking displays of the perfections of the Deity, particularly the grandeur of his Omnipotence. It sets before us objects of overpowering magnitude and sublimity, and demonstrates the unlimited extent and magnificence of the universal empire of the Almighty. It has a tendency to raise the soul above grovelling pursuits and affections, to inspire hope, reverence, and humility, and to excite to the contemplation of objects far surpassing every thing we behold in this terrestrial scene, and worthy of the dignity of immortal minds. In short, it prepares the mind for the employments of the future world, and demonstrates, that the Creator has it in his power to distribute endlessly diversified streams of felicity, among every order of his intelligent offspring, throughout all the revolutions of eternity. It is a subject, therefore, on which a certain portion of information should be communicated to the young, and to every human being.

In communicating to the young instructions on this subjectinstead of commencing with definitions of astronomical terms, and a vague description of the solar system, as is frequently done, -the pupils should be gradually prepared for acquiring a general knowledge of the principles of the science, by being taught to

Bakewell, Macculloch, Delabeche, Buckland, Ure, Lyell, &c. are well known as cultivators of this department of natural science. The new edition of Mr. Lyell's "Principles of Geology," in 4 vols. 12mo. lately published, is perhaps one of the most luminous and attractive works which has hitherto been published on this subject-though perhaps somewhat deficient in what relates to the primary and secondary rocks, and embodying certain statements which some will be apt to consider as scarcely consistent with the records of sacred history. Dr. Comstock, of Hartford, State of Connecticut, has lately published, in a duodecimo vol. of about 340 pages, an interesting work, entitled, "Outlines of Geology," which contains a popular and comprehensive view of this subject, and is peculiarly adapted to the instruction of general readers.

its rising on each successive day; while in spring, the difference is nearly an hour and a half, which prevents her, at that season, from being seen in the form of a half-moon, during her decrease, till early in the morning;—whereas, in harvest, she may be seen rising in the north-east, in the form of a half-moon, about 8 or 9 in the evening.

They may next be directed to attend to some of the principal stars, and the more conspicuous constellations, and particularly to the apparent diurnal motion of the whole celestial vault. The month of January is perhaps the most eligible season for such observations. About the middle of that month, at eight o'clock in the evening, the most striking and brilliant constellations visible in the northern hemisphere are then above the horizon. The Pleiades or Seven stars, and other portions of the constellation Taurus, are nearly on the meridian, at an elevation of above 60 degrees. The splendid constellation Orion, to the south of Taurus, is a little to the east of the meridian; Canis Minor to the east, and Canis Major to the south-east of Orion. Nearly due east, and near the horizon, is the zodiacal constellation Leo. То the west of the meridian are the constellations Aries, Pisces, Cetus, Andromeda, Pegasus, and Cassiopeia, which is not far from the zenith. To the north-east is Ursa Major, or the Great Bear, sometimes distinguished by the name of the Plough, or Charles's Wain.-The star Aldebaran, or the Bull's eye, is nearly on the meridian, at an elevation of 54°, supposing the place of observation to be in 52° north latitude. It is distinguished by its ruddy appearance. The brilliant star Capella is nearly 32° north by east from Aldebaran, not far from the zenith; and Rigel, in the left foot of Orion, is about 27° south by east of Aldebaran, and a little east of the meridian. Betelgeur is northeast from Rigel, and forms a right-angled triangle with it and Aldebaran. The stars Castor and Pollux are east by north from Aldebaran, at a considerable distance from it, (45°,) and nearly halfway between the zenith and the eastern horizon. Nearly straight south from Pollux and east from Betelgeux, is Procyon. These three stars form a right-angled triangle, the star Procyon being at the right angle. Near the south-eastern part of the horizon, and a little elevated above it, is Sirius, or the Dog-star, which is generally reckoned the most. brilliant fixed star in the heavens. West from Rigel, at a considerable distance, (46°,) and at nearly the same elevation above the horizon, is Mira, or the Wonderful star, which changes from a star of the second magnitude, so as to become invisible once in a period of 334 days. The brilliant star Lyra is north-north-west, very near the horizon.