held existing around him. These he would endeavour, by some means, to distinguish one from another; and, if it were his design to invent a language by which he might hold a cornmunication with other rational beings, his first effort would undoubtedly be, to give them names by which the ideas of them might be at any time recalled, when the objects themselves were absent from his view. These form a copious source of words, which must be common to every language formed for the communication of thought among intelligent beings, wherever existing, throughout the immensity of the universe. He would likewise soon discover that every one of the objects around him was endowed with certain attributes or qualities, to express which another class of words or signs would be requisite. In the course of his further survey, he would perceive certain changes, motions, and events, such as the ebbing and flowing of the sea, the rising and setting of the sun, the flight of birds, the movements of quadrupeds, &c. the expression of which would require a class of words distinct from the former. These classes comprehend all the words which can be deemed essential to language, or to a mutual interchange of sentiments between rational beings. In the progress of the formation of language, however, other words would be found highly expedient, for the purpose of ease or ornament, for connecting the different parts of a discourse, or to avoid circumlocutions or disagreeable repetitions; and hence the invention of pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions. If this appears to have been the process by which language was originally formed, it likewise suggests the proper mode by which a general knowledge of the object, use, and component parts of language may be communicated to the young.

With regard to Syntax, in many of our initiatory grammars, there are between thirty and forty syntactical rules, many of them long and complex, and accompanied with numerous expla nations, distinctions, and exceptions, all of which are intended to be crammed verbatim into the memory of the grammatical tyro, whether he understand them or not, and however ungracious and irksome the task assigned him. Is such a task necessary to be imposed, in the first instance? and, if imposed, will it tend to inspire the pupil with a greater relish for grammatical studies, or render him more accurate in the art of composition? I have no hesitation in answering such questions in the negative. Although all the rules alluded to were admitted to be useful, it would be highly inexpedient to burden and perplex a young person with such exercises, when communicating the first elements of grammatical arrangement, especially when he cannot be supposed to

have a clear conception of the meaning and application of the greater part of such rules. What idea, for example, can a child of six or seven years have of such a sentence as the following, which forms only the one-fourth part of the 30th rule of syntax, in Blair's Grammar-"The same adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions, are always understood to apply to their respective parts of speech, when connected by conjunctions; so that, if either of them be changed in the next clause of the sentence, or the mood or tense of the verb be changed, the nominative or its pronoun must be repeated," —or of the following, which forms another part of the same rule-"All the parts of a sentence should correspond with each other, and a regular and similar construction be carefully preserved throughout; and this corresponding analogy in the construction of sentences constitutes the principal charm of elegant composition."*

I am fully convinced that, in the first instance, it is quite unnecessary to advert to more than three or four fundamental rules in syntax, in order to direct the young in the general construction of sentences. There is one principal rule, which, if punctually observed, would prevent any egregious blunder from being committed either in speaking or writing-and that is, “A verb should agree with its nominative in number and person." This might be called, with some propriety, the Rule of syntax-a rule which is short and simple, which can be easily explained and comprehended, on the observation of which the meaning of a sentence frequently depends, and a rule, in short, which is most frequently violated, even by good writers, especially when their sentences are long and complex. To this rule I would add the following"Active verbs and prepositions govern the objective case of pronouns ;" and, in order to prevent such inaccurate expressions as “more better," "more dearer," &c. the rule, "Double comparatives and superlatives are improper," may be added. Exercises might also be given to illustrate the two following rules-" The

* Mr. Blair, in his Preface to the Grammar alluded to, says, "A grammar for the use of schools should not contain any thing superfluous," and "every thing should be expressed in the smallest number of words," which are certainly good maxims, and yet some of his syntactical rules occupy nearly a page. He immediately adds, "Whatever it is desirable young people should know they must learn by rote-the memory is the only faculty of children of which teachers can properly avail themselves, and it is a vain attempt to address their immature powers of reason and reflection." Such sentiments are rather too antiquated for the nineteenth century. This gentleman, whether his name be real or fictitious, has succeeded much better in the execution of his " Class-Book," and his "Grammar of Natural Philosophy," than in his "Practical Grammar of the English Language."

past participle should be used after the verbs have and be ;" and "The verb to be, should have the same case after it as before it." It ought never to be forgotten, that the habit of accurate composition depends more on practice, and the study of good writers, than on a multitude of rules; and I appeal to every one who is in the habit of composing, whether, in the moment of committing his thoughts to writing, he ever thinks of the rules of syntax, except, perhaps, some of those now specified. I have known an individual, in the lower walks of life, who had never been taught grammar, nor perused any book on the subject—who wrote essays on physical subjects, which might have been inserted with propriety (and some of them were actually inserted) in respectable scientific Journals. The only inaccuracy which appeared was an occasional violation of the first rule of syntax above stated. A more correct idea of the construction of sentences will be conveyed to the young by the occasional remarks of a judicious teacher, during their reading lessons-by exercising them frequently on the rules above stated, particularly the first-in causing them to correct ungrammatical sentences—and by pointing out the inaccuracies which occur in their written compositions,—than by all the formal rules that can be packed into their memories.

All the instructions alluded to above may be imparted without the assistance of any book or manual of grammar, and that, too, almost in the way of amusement. When the pupil has arrived at the age of 13 or 14 years, such books as "Murray's English Grammar," and "Irvine's Elements of English Composition," may be put into his hands for private perusal, where he will meet with a number of minute remarks and observations on the subject, which may be worthy of his attention. But, at the same time, he may be given to understand, that the careful study of good authors, a clear conception of the subject to which his attention is directed, and the exercise of judgment, taste, and common sense, on every piece of composition, will be of more avail than any system of abstract rules; and that a breach of some of the rules laid down by grammarians may sometimes be as proper as a strict observance of them. In short, in training children to accuracy, both in grammar and orthoepy, it might have a good effect were care uniformly taken, both in the school and the parlour, to correct every expression in their ordinary conversation that is ungrammatical, or incorrect in their pronunciation-to explain the reasons of the corrections, and to endeavour, on all occasions, to induce them to express their thoughts with propriety and precision. In the schools in Scotland every child should be taught to pronounce the English language with accuracy, even

in his common conversation, so that the Scottish language may be extirpated as soon as possible, since it will never again be the language of literature or science.

SECTION VI.-Geography.

Geography is a branch of knowledge with which every individual of the human race ought to be, in some measure, acquainted. It is scarcely consistent with the character of a rational being, surrounded by the immensity of the works of God, to feel no desire to become acquainted with these works, and, particularly, to remain in ignorance of the form, magnitude, component parts, and general arrangements of the terrestrial habitation allotted for his abode. It is equally inconsistent with a principle of benevolence, and with the relations in which he stands to beings of the same nature and destination, to remain altogether unacquainted with the physical and moral condition of other tribes of his fellowmen, and to feel no interest in alleviating their miseries or promoting their improvement. It is even inconsistent with the spirit of religion and the duties of a Christian, to remain in indifference with regard to geographical knowledge, for "the field" of Christian labour and benevolence is "the world" with its numerous tribes of inhabitants, which it is the great object of this science to investigate and describe. As the depositories of Revelation, of "the good things of great joy," which are intended to be communicated" to all people," we are bound to study this subject in all its bearings and relations, and to teach it to our children, and our children's children, that they may feel an interest in the moral condition of the inhabitants of distant lands, and employ their energies in diffusing Divine knowledge, in counteracting moral evils, in abolishing the system of warfare, and preparing the way for a harmonious intercourse among all the families of the earth. This science, therefore, ought to form a subject of study in every seminary devoted to the instruction of the young. Yet it is a fact, that, in the present state of society, we find thousands of our fellow-men almost as ignorant as the horse or the mule, of the arrangements of the world in which they dwell, and of the various tribes of human beings with which it is peopled-as if they had no connection with their brethren of the same family, nor any common relation to the Universal Parent who gave them existence.

This study, like many other scholastic exercises, has too frequently been conducted in a dry and uninteresting manner, and very inadequate ideas communicated of its grand features and leading objects. Lists of the names of towns, cities, countries

rivers, bays, and gulfs, have been imposed as tasks to the memory, without any corresponding ideas; and the mechanical exercises of copying maps, and twirling an artificial globe, have not unfrequently been substituted for clear and comprehensive views of the leading facts and principles of the science. Physical geography has been almost entirely omitted in the initiatory books on this subject; and most of them are constructed on this principle, that the meagre descriptions and details they contain shall be committed to memory by rote. In this way, months and even years have been spent, and as little real knowledge of geography acquired, as there is of theology by the common routine of committing to memory the vocables of the "Church Catechism," or the Westminster Assembly's synopsis of Divinity.

In communicating a knowledge of geography, it is requisite, in the first place, to give the young a clear and impressive idea of the size, form, component parts, and general arrangements of the earth, considered simply as an object of contemplation, and a part of the creation of God. In stating to a class of pupils that "the earth is round like a ball," the reasons or arguments which prove this position should be clearly and familiarly illustrated. If they are near the sea-coast, they should be conducted to the margin of the sea, to observe how the hull of a ship, leaving the shore, disappears, near the horizon, before the sails, and the sails before the topmast; and a telescope should be provided, that the observation may be made with perfect distinctness. They may be informed, at the same time, that a ship disappears from the view, in the same manner, in all parts of the ocean; and if so, the ocean must form a part of the surface of a sphere; and if the ocean, with its numerous ramifications of seas, straits, and gulfs, be of a spherical form, the surface of the land must be nearly of the same figure, since it is nearly on the same level as the sea, no part of it rising more than a mile or two above this level, except the peaks of a few lofty mountains. Where there

is no convenient access to the sea-coast, or the margin of a lake or river, the same fact may be illustrated by the appearance of a person going over the top of a conical hill,—or any waving tract of ground may be selected, and a little boy directed to walk from the one extremity to the other, over the highest point of it; when it will be perceived, after having passed this point, that the lower parts of his body will first disappear, and that the top of his head will be the last part of him that will be visible, as represented in the following figure.