its affinity to water, it is not easily crystallized, but, by a slow evaporation, affords four-sided prisms. It is deliquescent in a humid atmosphere, and very soluble in water, whence its name, also, of soluble tartar. Tartrate of soda is soluble and crystallizable. A triple salt, the tartrate of potash and soda, formerly named Rochelle salt, is formed by neutralizing the excess of acid in the super-tartrate of potash, by adding carbonate of soda. It crystallizes in rhomboidal prisms, soluble in five parts of water. Tartaric acid acts on some of the metals, and it may be combined with the oxides of all of them by double affinity. By employing the bitartrate of potash to act on these oxides, ternary compounds are obtained. The most important of these is that formed with the oxide of antimony. It has long been known, in medical practice, under the name of tartar emetic, as one of the mildest and most manageable of the antimonial preparations. It is prepared by boiling three parts of the brown oxide (obtained by deflagrating sulphuret of antimony with nitre) with four parts of bitartrate of potash in 32 parts of water for half an hour: the solution, when strained, is set aside to crystallize.

TARTARUS, in the earliest mythology of the Greeks; the kingdom of the dead, the infernal regions in general, or the realm of the subterranean Jupiter-Pluto. (See Cemetery.) At a later period, it was limited to that part of the infernal regions in which the Titans and the damned were confined. It was represented as a dark and gloomy region, surrounded by a triple wall, and encircled by the fiery river Phlegethon, Cocytus, the stream of lamentation, and Acheron. We find a description of Tartarus in Hesiod, one of the earliest Greek poets; and Virgil (Æn. vi, 577) paints the horrors of the place. Here lay the monstrous Tityos (who attempted to violate Latona), stretching over nine acres, while two vultures incessantly gnawed his liver; here Sisyphus rolled a ponderous stone; Ixion revolved on his wheel; Tantalus was tormented with inextinguishable hunger and thirst, and the Danaids toiled in vain to fill their sieves from the waters of the Lethe. (See, also, the article Hieroglyphics, division Egyptian Mythology.)

TARTARY, TARTARS. The old geographers divided the country of the Tartars into European or Little Tartary, and Asiatic or Great Tartary. The former comprised those countries round the Black sea which were inhabited by the Nogay

Tartars, and the Budshiac Tartars, or Bessarabians, and a part of the country between the Dnieper and the Dniester. But since these districts have been annexed to Russia (1784), the name has gone out of use; and they constitute the governments of Taurida (q. v.), Cherson (q. v.) and Ekaterinoslav, which contain several commercial cities, and, besides Tartars, have many Russian, Greek, German and Jewish colonists among their population. Asiatic Tartary, called, from its extent, Great Tartary, borders on the Asiatic provinces of Russia, on Persia, Thibet and the Chinese empire. The northern part (Dschagatai, or Zagatai, or Independent Tartary) contains extensive steppes, and is partly occupied by nomadic tribes, which are governed by separate khans (princes), and differ considerably in their character and manners: some of these khans are under the protection of Russia. The southern part is called Great Bucharia, in which, among other commercial cities, is Samarcand, once the residence of Timour. Little Bucharia is subject to China. (See Bucharia.) The whole of Central Asia, to the west of Dschagatai, is often improperly styled Chinese Tartary. This error arises from the confusion of the Mongol and Mantchoo tribes, who roam over these regions, with the Tartars, with whom they have no affinity. (See Mongols, Calmucs, and Mandshures.) The proper Tartars, or, more correctly, Tatars, are divided into numerous branches, and, under different names, occupy a large extent of territory in Europe and Asia. Their true name is Turks, or Turcomanns, that of Tatar being, according to some, a Chinese term for all the nomadic tribes of Central Asia, and, according to others, the name of a Mongol tribe. Once the terror of their neighbors, and not without civilization, some traces and monuments of which still exist, they are now, for the most part, subject to foreign masters. Some tribes continue to preserve their independence, occupying regions too barren to offer any temptation to conquerors, or too remote to be easily accessible; but these circumstances, which have protected them from the arms of foreign conquerors, have also prevented them from being much visited by travellers; and little is known of them and of their country. The Tartar population in Russia amounts to about three million souls, residing chiefly in the southern provinces, in stationary habitations, and occupied with agriculture: they are peaceful and industrious in their habits.

Some Tartar colonies are distributed among the Russian villages in the governments of Orenburg, Kasan and Tobolsk, and several hordes are independent allies of Russia. The Russian Tartars consist of several branches; the Tartars proper, the Nogays, the Bashkirs, the Kirghises, Yakoutes, and Teleutes. The Tartars proper are descendants of the two great hordes which the successors of Gengis Khan established in Siberia and on the Volga. They comprise the tribes of Kasan, Astrachan and Taurida. They still preserve the peculiar national physiognomy. The true Tartar is well formed, of middle size, slender, with small, but lively and expressive eyes, and of decent and even dignified demeanor: he is frank, kind, hospitable, peaceful, courageous, fond of instruction and of the arts, agriculture and mechanical occupation. The females are not without grace and beauty. About one fifth of these Tartars have embraced the Christian religion; the rest are Mohammedans. Some of them still live in tents, and lead a wandering life. The Siberian Tartars have intermixed with other races, and lost much of their national peculiarity: some of them are stationary, and cultivate the ground; but the most of them are nomads: they are either heathens or Mohammedans. The Nogay Tartars, who dwell on the Cuban and the Volga, and in some other districts, are Mohammedans, and chiefly lead a wandering life: they are much inferior to the Tartars proper in civilization and personal appearance. The Bashkirs are in a still lower condition: they wander in summer, and dwell in villages and wooden huts in winter. (See Bashkirs.) The Kirghises, who inhabit the great steppe of Orenburg, breed cattle, live in tents, are Mohammedans, and resemble the true Tartars more nearly than the last mentioned tribes. (See Kirghises.) The Yakoutes and Teleutes are few in number, lead a wandering life, worship idols, and are altogether in a low state of civilization. The Bucharians, who are found in Russia, live in cities and villages, and are industrious workmen. (See Turcomania, and Usbecks.)

TARTINI, Giuseppe, an Italian musician and composer, a native of Pirano, in the province of Istria, was born in 1692. His father gave him an expensive education, with the view of qualifying him to follow the law as his profession, and had him also instructed in all the accomplishments of a gentleman. Among them music was not forgotten; but it was not till a secret

marriage alienated from him the affections of his friends, that he thought of making it conducive to his support. An ecclesiastic, connected with the family, procured him a situation in the orchestra of his convent, where an accident discovering his retreat, matters were at length accommodated, and he was enabled to settle with his wife at Venice. Here the example of the celebrated Veracini excited in him the strongest emulation; and he is said to have retired to Ancona for the sole purpose of being able to practise on the violin in greater tranquillity than circumstances allowed him to enjoy at Venice. While thus occupied, he discovered, in 1714, the phenomenon of "the third sound," i. e. the resonance of a third note when the two upper notes of a chord are sounded; and, after seven years' practice, obtained the situation of leader of the orchestra in the cathedral of St. Anthony at Padua. In this capacity he continued to act till death, with increasing reputation, and declining, from devotion to his patron saint, many advantageous offers both from Paris and London. A singular story is told respecting one of his most celebrated compositions. One night he dreamed that he had made a compact with the devil, and bound him to his service. To ascertain the musical abilities of his associate, he gave him his violin, and desired him to play him a solo, which Satan executed in so masterly a manner, that Tartini, awaking in the ecstasy which it produced, and seizing his instrument, endeavored to recall the delicious sounds. His efforts were so far effectual as to produce the piece generally admired under the name of the Devil's Sonata: still the production was, in his own estimation, so inferior to that which he had heard in his sleep, as to cause him to declare that, could he have procured a subsistence in any other line of life, he should have broken his violin in despair, and renounced music for ever. Besides his musical compositions, Tartini was the author of several treatises on the science. His death took place at Padua in 1770.

TARTSCHE; a round shield, formerly much in use with the Turks. Perhaps the word is of Slavonic origin, as it still has this signification in Russian and Polish.

TARTUFFE; the chief character in Molière's best comedy, first played, in 1664, before Louis XIV. Tartuffe is a hypocrite; and the word is at present used to designate such, not only in French, but also in other languages. Some say that the character of Tartuffe depicts the con

fessor of Louis XIV, father Lachaise, whom Molière once saw eating truffles (in French, tartuffes) with great relish. Others say that the poet, being at the house of the nuncio, saw two monks praying, apparently very devoutly, when a Savoyard entering with truffles to sell, the two monks exclaimed with great enthusiasın, O signore, tartuffi! tartuffi! The latter version does not seem probable. Molière had already many enemies among the clergy, lawyers and physicians; and all the fools and bigots were against the public performance of Tartuffe. Two years Molière applied in vain for permission to the court, the papal legate, the prelates, &c. At length permission was obtained; but just as the curtain was about to rise, it was prohibited again, of which Molière pointedly informed the public himself with these words, referring to the president of the parliament: Monsieur le president ne veut pas qu'on le joue! At length, in 1669, Molière succeeded in bringing the play on the stage; and for three months Tartuffe was performed uninterruptedly a sufficient proof of the justice of its satire. TASCH; Turkish for stone, in many geographical names.

TAsso, Bernardo, a distinguished epic and lyric poet, whose fame has, however, been eclipsed by that of his son Torquato, was born at Bergamo, in 1493, and was of an ancient and noble family. His education was conducted with great care; and he not only cultivated the lighter literature, but devoted himself to the study of politics. He had already become known as a poet throughout Italy, when Guido Rangone, general of the pope, and a patron of learning, took him into his service, and employed him in managing the most difficult negotiations with Clement VII at Rome, and Francis I in France. Bernardo subsequently entered into the service of Renata, duchess of Ferrara, but soon left her court, and went first to Padua and then to Venice. Here he published a collection of his poems, which gave him a place among the first of living poets. Ferrante Sanseverino, prince of Salerno, engaged him in his service, in 1531, as secretary, on honorable and advantageous terms. When the prince followed Charles V to Tunis, in a galley equipped at his own cost, Tasso accompanied him, and, after his return, was sent on public business to Spain. In 1539, he married the rich and beautiful Porzia de' Rossi, and retired, with the consent of the prince, to Sorrento, where he lived till 1547. But the misfortunes of

his master, whose estates had been seized by Charles V, on account of his opposi tion to the introduction of the inquisition into Naples, involved Tasso in the greatest embarrassments. He was compelled to seek another place of refuge, and was finally invited by the duke of Urbino to take up his residence at Pesaro. The leisure which he now enjoyed was employed in finishing his Armida, which he published at Venice in 1560. In 1563, the duke of Mantua engaged him in his service, and appointed him governor of Ostiglia, where he died in 1569. His remains were interred at Mantua under a handsome monument erected by the duke, with the inscription Ossa Bernardi Taɛsi; but his son Torquato afterwards removed them to Ferrara. His chief work, Armida, a romantic epic, displays much talent and art: in the expression of the tender passions, in his descriptions of nature, in vivid delineations of adventures and battles, all the ornaments of poetry are happily introduced. His lyrical and other poems, in five books, are among the most charming productions of the Italian muse. We have also a Discourse on Po-etry, and three books of Letters, from his pen.

TASSO, Torquato. This poet, celebrated for his immortal works, as well as his unhappy fate, the son of the above-mentioned Bernardo Tasso, was born in the year 1544, at Sorrento. His talents early and rapidly developed themselves. While yet a little child, he was always grave and sedate. From his seventh to his tenth year, he attended the schools of the Jesuits in Naples, and learned the Latin and Greek languages thoroughly. He then accompanied his father to Rome, where, under his superintendence, he continued his studies with equal success for two years. He then went to Bergamo, and, six months after, to Pesaro, where his father had met with a favorable reception from the duke of Urbino. Here he shared the instruction of the duke's son. His favorite studies were philosophy and poetry; but he also devoted himself to mathematics and chivalrous exercises. When his father resided at Venice, he remained there with him for a year, and then went, at the age of thirteen years, to Padua, with the intention of studying law. But his genius drew him irresistibly to poetry, and, at the age of seventeen years, he came out with an epic poem, in twelve cantos (Rinaldo), which he dedicated to the cardinal Ludovico of Este. Italy received this work with universal applause; and

his father consented, after a long opposition, that he should relinquish the study of the law. Torquato now devoted himself with redoubled zeal to literary and philosophical studies, and, with this view, accepted an invitation to Bologna. Here he commenced the execution of a plan of an epic poem, which he had already formed in Padua-the conquest of Jerusalem under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon. But, in the midst of these occupations, he was unexpectedly disturbed. He was falsely accused as the author of a satirical poem in circulation, and was subjected to a judicial examination. This induced him to leave Bologna. He went to Modena, and then accepted the invitation of the friend of his youth, the young Scipio Gonzaga, who had founded an academy in Padua, and wished to see Tasso at the head of it. He studied with great assiduity the philosophy of Aristotle, but still more that of Plato, towards whom he felt himself drawn by the cords of sympathy. Meanwhile, he did not lose sight of his epic poem. How intently the theory of this species of poem occupied him may be seen by the three dialogues which he then composed on the subject. The cardinal Ludovico of Este appointed him a gentleman of his court, and wished that he should be present in Ferrara at the nuptials of his brother Alphonso with an archduchess of Austria. Tasso went, in October, 1565, and attended the splendid fetes with which those nuptials were celebrated. The sisters of the duke, Lucretia and Leonora, both indeed no longer young, but beautiful and lovely, gave the poet their friendship; in particular the latter, who presented him to Alphonso. This prince, who knew that Tasso wished to celebrate the conquest of Jerusalem in an epic poem, received him in a most flattering manner, and warmly encouraged his undertaking, so that the poet returned to his labor, which had been interrupted during two years, and determined to dedicate his work to the duke Alphonso, and to raise in it a monument to the fame of the ducal house, from which he then enjoyed such distinguished favor. For a short time only he left Ferrara to visit Padua, Milan, Pavia, and Mantua, where he saw his father. He returned with increased celebrity. The heart of Tasso was much affected by the unexpected death of his father; but neither this misfortune, nor other distractions, prevented him from laboring every day on his poem, of which he had finished eight cantos, when he travelled in the suite of 13

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the cardinal of Este to France, in 1571. Here he was received with distinction by Charles IX, as well as by the whole court. The poet Ronsard was his friend; and they communicated to each other their poetical labors. In the mean time, Tasso may have expressed himself too freely and unguardedly concerning some subjects which then occupied the minds of all: he lost the favor of the cardinal, and, in consequence, appears to have been involved in some embarrassments, and finally departed for Italy. He returned to Rome, and soon entered, according to his wishes, into the service of the duke Alphonso, by the mediation of the princess of Urbino, Lucretia of Este, and the princess Leonora. The conditions were favorable and honorable, and left him in possession of entire freedom. But hardly had he applied himself again to the work, which the world expected with impatience, when the death of the duchess again interrupted his labors. Alphonso soon after made a journey to Rome, and Tasso took advantage of the leisure thus afforded him to compose his Aminta, the plan of which had been for a long time in his mind. The representation of an idyl in dialogue, written by Agostino degl'Argenti, at which he had been present six years before, in Ferrara, had delighted him, and suggested to him the idea of a similar work, which he now completed in two months, and which far surpassed all that Italy then possessed of this kind. From this dramatic performance the opera may be considered to have taken its rise. The duke was most agreeably surprised, on his return, by this performance, and ordered the representation of it to be made with the greatest splendor. Tasso's consideration and favor with the duke increased; but his good fortune excited the envy of many, who continually meditated his ruin. The princess of Urbino wishing to become acquainted with the poem, which was the subject of general admiration, Tasso paid her a visit at Pesaro, where the old prince Guidobaldo, as well as his son and daughter-in-law, received him in a very flattering manner. For several months, he lived in the charming castle Durante, in the most intimate friendship with Lucretia, who willingly listened to the verses in which he immortalized her.

With rich presents

he returned to Ferrara, and occupied himself again with his epic poem, which he once more reluctantly discontinued, to accompany the duke to Venice, whither the latter went to meet king Henry III,

to a

who had just exchanged the throne of Poland for that of France, and who was now invited to visit Ferrara. This journey took place in the hottest season of the year, and brought on the poet a fever, which continued a long time, and interrupted all his labors. During his convalescence, he finished, in the early part of the year 1575, his Goffredo-the fruit of so much exertion, and the source of such great misfortunes to him. But he wished, before publishing it, to obtain the judgment of his friends; and their discordant opinions perplexed and agitated him to such a degree as to occasion another burning fever, from which, however, he soon recovered. He immediately examined his work anew, in order to retouch or alter it in particular places. The duke treated him with redoubled attention and distinction. Tasso accompanied him on his journeys of pleasure to Belriguardo, and Lucretia, who had separated from her husband, and had returned to her brother, wished to have the poet always with her. It was with difficulty that he obtained, under these circumstances, in November, 1575, permission to go to Rome, in order to subject his poem new and thorough examination. Here he was well received, in particular by his friend Scipio di Gonzaga. By him he was presented to the cardinal Ferdinand de' Medici (brother, and afterwards successor, of the grand-duke of Tuscany), who, knowing that the poet was no longer pleased with Ferrara, proposed to him the service of the grand-duke. Tasso, however, declined, from a feeling of gratitude towards the house of Este. He therefore soon returned to Ferrara, where, not long after, arrived the young and beautiful countess Leonora Sanvitali, wife of the count of Scandiano, a lady whom Tasso ardently admired, and whom he has celebrated in his poems. She, also, on her part, was not insensible to his friendship; and the duke about this time conferred upon him the vacant office of historiographer to the house of Este: thus, to his misfortune, he found himself bound more closely to Ferrara; and the hatred of his rivals and enemies was increased. He was greatly troubled by the information that his poem had been printed in a city of Italy, as it did not appear to him sufficiently finished for the press, and as he saw himself, also, by this means, deprived of the advantages which he had hoped for from the labor of so many years. This and other troubles, partly real, partly imaginary, increased his melancholy: he

believed himself persecuted by his enemies, calumniated, accused. In this state of mind, one evening, in the apartment of the duchess of Urbino, he drew his sword against one of her servants. This induced the duke to arrest him, and confine him in a house near the palace; but, upon his entreaty, he restored him to liberty, and merely desired that he would put himself under the care of a physician. A cure appeared to be effected, and the duke took him on a journey of pleasure to Belriguardo, in order to console and divert him, after he had caused the grand inquisitor to satisfy some scruples of conscience which had arisen in Tasso's mind, on account of doubts upon religious subjects. But all this care was not sufficient to restore the poet's peace, and the duke at last saw himself under the necessity of letting him return, according to his desire, to the Franciscans in Ferrara. His situation became continually worse: he imagined himself surrounded by perils, gave himself the most painful reproaches, and, at last, in this state of mental disorder, took advantage of a moment when he was not watched, and, destitute of every thing, without even his manuscripts, made his escape on the 20th of July, 1577. He hastened to his sister Cornelia, who lived in a state of widowhood at Sorrento, in Naples, and who received him most tenderly. By her care, he at last began to grow composed. He repented of his precipitate flight, and presented to the duke and princesses a petition that he might be restored to his place, but particularly to their favor. He, indeed, went back to Ferrara; but his old malady soon returned, and he escaped a second time. In vain did he seek shelter in Mantua, Padua and Venice: at the court of Urbino he first met with a worthy reception. But, notwithstanding all the friendship and care with which he was treated, his melancholy acquired new strength: he thought himself not secure; and, while he fled from imaginary dangers, he rushed upon real ones. He went, at last, to Turin. Here a friend recognised him, extricated him from his embarrassments, and presented him to the marquis Filippo d'Este, who received him in a very friendly and liberal manner. The archbishop of Turin, an old friend of Bernardo Tasso, introduced him to duke Charles Emanuel, who received him under the same conditions as those on which he had lived in Ferrara. Once more the unhappy Tasso took courage, and bright sparks