tannin contained in the bark of the oak, hemlock, and some other kinds of forest trees. It is a simple process to make leather of hides and bark, but probably one of the most critical of manufacturing operations to make the most and the best leather that can be made from a given quantity of hide. The process is long and laborious. Time and labor are both materially reduced, and the quantity and weight of the leather increasea, by various improvements, which commenced in the year 1803, in Hampshire county, in Massachusetts. The improvements above alluded to are the substitution of water power for manual labor, in many of the most laborious parts of the process; viz. to soften and cleanse the hide preparatory to the bark being applied to it; to grind the bark; to move pumps for transferring the decoction of the bark from one vat to another (much of which is necessary to be done daily in an extensive tannery), and to roll the leather preparatory to its being sent to market; also the least possible quantity of lime is now used to facilitate getting off the hair: this has been found greatly to add to the weight and quality of the leather. The application of heat to bark in leaches is found to be very important, and more particularly the application of the decoction (usually termed liquor) to the hide, rather than the bark, which had been commonly employed. In 1829, 36,360 sides of sole leather were tanned in one establishment in the town of Hunter, Greene county, New York. They weighed 637,413 pounds, and were manufactured with the labor of forty-nine hands, and with 3200 cords of bark. The tannery has seven powerful water-wheels adapted to its various machinery. Slaughter hides averaged fifty-six and a half pounds of sole leather from one hundred of hide: best South American dry hides gained sixty-one per cent. in weight, and ordinary ones in proportion.Tanning is a chemical process; and undoubtedly the art will go on improving with the progress of chemical science and the diffusion of chemical knowledge.

TANSY (tanacetum vulgare). This plant is now naturalized, and pretty common in many parts of the U. States. It grows in beds by road sides, and in waste places. The stems are upright, branching, and about two feet high; the leaves doubly pinnate, and incisely serrate, and of an agreeable aspect. It belongs to the composita. The flowers are yellow buttons, disposed in a large, upright corymb. The

whole plant has a strong and penetrating odor, agreeable to some persons, and an extremely bitter taste. It contains an acrid volatile oil, is stimulant and carminative, and the decoction and seeds are recommended as anthelmintic and sudorific. The young leaves are shredded down, and employed to give color and flavor to puddings; they are also used in omelets and cakes, and those of the curled variety for garnishing.

TANTALITE. (See Columbite.)
TANTALUM. (See Columbium.)

TANTALUS, son of Jupiter, and king of Sipylus, in Phrygia, was a favorite of the gods, who often visited him, until he forfeited their favor by his arrogance. Tradition does not agree as to his crime. According to one account, he offended Jupiter by his perfidy; according to another, he stole away the nectar and ambrosia from heaven; and a third story is, that he murdered his own son Pelops, and served him up for some of the gods. The same diversity prevails in regard to his punishment. He is sometimes described as having a large stone suspended over his head, which constantly threatens to fall and crush him, and from which he cannot flee. But the more common account represents him as standing up to his throat in water, with the most delicious fruits hanging over his head, which, when he attempts to quench his burning thirst or to appease his raging hunger, elude his grasp. From this fable comes the English expression to tantalize.

TAPESTRY; a kind of woven hangings of wool and silk, frequently raised and enriched with gold and silver, representing figures of men, animals, landscapes, historical subjects, &c. This species of curtain-covering for walls was known among the inhabitants of Eastern countries at an extremely remote era. The most grotesque compositions and fantastic combinations were commonly selected for the display of the talents of workmen in this department of Oriental art, which was afterwards imported into Greece. From these compositions the elegant Greeks are supposed, by Böttiger, to have taken their ideas of griffins, centaurs, &c. At length the refined taste of Athens became visible in the structure of tapestries. The old grotesque combinations no longer, as formerly, covered their surfaces, but were confined to the borders only; and the centre received more regular and systematic representations. In modern times, this description of embroidery has been executed with very great success,

and has often employed the talents of the greatest masters in the art of painting. In Flanders, particularly at Arras (whence the term arras, signifying tapestry), during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the art was practised with uncommon skill; and tapestries were executed there after the masterly designs of Raffaelle in his cartoons. (q. v.) This art was introduced into England by William Sheldon, near the end of Henry VIII's reign. In 1619, a manufacture was established at Mortlake, in Surrey, by sir Fras. Crane, who received £2000 from James I, to encourage the design. The first manufacture of tapestry at Paris was set up under Henry IV, in 1606 or 1607, by several artists whom that monarch invited from Flanders. But the most celebrated of all the European tapestry manufactures was that of the Gobelins (q.v.), instituted under Louis XIV, which sent forth very beautiful cloths, remarkable for strength, for elegance of design, and happy choice of colors. The finest paintings were copied, and eminent painters employed in making designs. For a long while Gobelin tapestry was the most costly and favorite method of hanging the walls of chambers. The texture of tapestry is in many respects similar to that of the finer carpetings; but the minuteness of the constituent parts causes the sight of the texture to be lost in the general effect of the piece. (See Carpets, and Hautelisse.)

TAPEWORM, one of the most stubborn worms which infest the bowels of beasts, and also of man, has its name from the broad, flat, ribbon-like appearance of each articulation and of the whole body, which is composed of these articulations. Bremser makes two species-tania and bothryocephalus—both of which were formerly united in one species, under the name of tania. One kind of both species appears in the human body; namely, 1. tania solium, the single or longlimbed chainworm, in which the organs of generation are found on one side of every articulation; it is the kind most commonly met with in Germany, France and England; 2. bothryocephalus latus, the proper or broad tapeworm, in which the sexual organs are found on the flat side of the articulations. It is met with only in Russia, Poland, Switzerland, and some parts of France, and causes little pain. Both kinds often reach the length of twenty or thirty feet, and usually only detached parts pass from the body, but not that which has the head; before this

has passed away, the worm reproduces itself, and, moreover, what was formerly doubted, several tapeworms are often met with in one intestinal canal. The symptoms of the tapeworm are a peculiar, sudden sensation of pricking in the stomach, oppression, and undulatory motions in the abdomen, anxiety, cramps, swoons, &c.; but all these symptoms are uncertain, and only the actual passing of pieces of the worm from the body is a certain proof of its existence. The cure is difficult, and requires an experienced physician. TAPIOCA. (See Manioc.)

TAPIR. The American tapir, when full grown, is six feet in total length, and about three and a half in height. In general form it resembles the hog; but the legs are rather longer in proportion, and the nose is prolonged into a small movable proboscis. The fore feet have four toes, and the hind ones three only. The eyes are small and lateral, and the ears long and pointed; the skin thick, and covered with scattering, short, silky hairs; the tail short, and slightly hairy. The teeth resemble those of the horse. It is the largest animal of South America, and is found in all parts of that continent, though most abundant in Guiana, Brazil and Paraguay. It shuns the habitations of men, and leads a solitary life in the interior of the forests, in moist situations, but selects for its abode a place somewhat elevated and dry. By travelling always the same rounds, it forms beaten paths, which are very conspicuous. It comes out only in the night, or during rainy weather, and resorts to the marshes. Its ordinary pace is a sort of trot; but it sometimes gallops, though awkwardly, and with the head down, and, besides, swims with facility. In the wild state, it lives on fruits and young branches of trees, but when domesticated, eats every kind of food. Though possessed of great strength, it makes use of it only for defence; and its disposition is mild and timid. The flesh is dry and disagreeably tasted; but the skin is very tough, and might be applied to useful purposes. The Indian tapir has only been discovered within a few years. It inhabits Sumatra, Malacca, and some of the surrounding countries. The colors are remarkable. The head, neck, feet and tail are black; the rest of the body and tip of the ears white.

TAPROBANA (with the ancients); the name of Ceylon.

TAR; a well known substance obtained chiefly from the pine by burning in a close, smothering heat. Some of the unctuous

species of bitumen are also called mineral tar. (See Bitumen.) The tar of the north of Europe is superior to that of the U. States, on account of the latter being prepared from dead wood, while the former is procured from trees recently felled. The mode practised in the Scandinavian peninsula is precisely that described by Theophrastus and Dioscorides, as in use in ancient Greece. A conical cavity is made in the ground, with a castiron pan at bottom, from which leads a funnel. The billets of wood are thrown into this cavity, and, being covered with turf, are slowly burnt without flame. The tar which exudes during combustion is conducted off through the funnel abovementioned into barrels, which are immediately bunged, and fit for exportation.

TAR RIVER. (See Pamlico.)
TARANTULA. (See Appendix.)

TARE is an allowance for the outside package, that contains such goods as cannot be unpacked without detriment; or for the papers, threads, bands, &c., that enclose or bind any goods imported loose, or which, though imported in casks, chests, &c., yet cannot be unpacked, and weighed net.

TARENTUM (Tapas); an old Greek colony in Lower Italy, founded by Lacedæmonian Parthenii, 700 B. C. It was one of the most flourishing and powerful cities of Magna Græcia, and for a long time defended its freedom against the attacks of the Romans. It was also distinguished for luxury and splendor. Pythagoras found many disciples here, and the fine arts were encouraged. Archytas, a mathematician, was a Tarentine. The city was taken by the Romans B. C. 272. The harbor of the modern Taranto is choked up with sand; but the place has some trade, and a population of 14,000 souls. Marshal Macdonald received his title of duke of Tarentum from this place.

TARENTUM, DUKE OF. (See Macdonald.) TARGUM (interpretation, translation); á Chaldee version of the Old Testament. After the Babylonish captivity, the ancient Hebrew had gradually become unintelligible to the common people (see Hebrew Language, and Jews); and it therefore became necessary to read or explain the Scriptures in the synagogues in the vulgar language of the country. The oldest Targum is that of Onkelos, which comprises only the pentateuch; the second, or that of Jonathan, is a version of the prophets. These are supposed to have been written about the time of our

Savior. The third targum is also a version, or rather a paraphrase of the law, accompanied with many glosses and fables. The fourth, likewise of the law, is called the "Jerusalem targum," because it is in the Syro-Chaldaic language, which was spoken at Jerusalem. The fifth is a paraphrase of the megilloth (Ruth, Esther, Ecclesiastes, Solomon's Song, Lamentations); the sixth, of Esther; the seventh, of Job, the Psalms and Proverbs; and the eighth, of the Chronicles. These six are of later origin and less value than the two first mentioned. Several of the targums are contained in the polyglot Bibles. (See Polyglot.)

TARIFF, or TARIF; first a list of certain merchandises; then a list of duties on imports and exports. This word, like many others used in commerce, is derived from the Italian, in which it is tariffa; this again comes, like several other expressions relating to commerce or navigation, from the East. In Persian, it is tarij. In Arabian, the verb arf signifies to know, which in the second form becomes tarif, signifying to make known. The substantive derived from the verb therefore signifies notification.

TARLETON, general, is the son of a merchant of Liverpool, into whose counting-house he was introduced; but a regiment being raised in that town, Mr. Tarleton quitted the pen for the sword, and took a commission in that regiment, in which he soon rose to the rank of captain. In America, he very much distinguished himself by his courage, and was allowed to raise a corps of horse and foot, called a legion. He then obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In this capacity he distinguished himself for his intrepidity as a partisan; but a defeat which he met with from the American general Sumter, did not speak much in favor of his talents as a general. On his return, he published a History of the Campaign in the Southern Provinces of America, in which he endeavored to justify his conduct. At the peace, he went on half-pay. He had, however, the good fortune to be introduced to, and favored with the confidence of, the heir-apparent, of whom he was, for some time, a constant companion. He also, by the interest of his family, obtained a seat in parliament, for his native place, Liverpool, and while in the house, he warmly entered into the opposition, with whom the prince then acted. While a member, he published a Speech intended to have been spoken; and, in 1810, a Speech, which he did

speak. He has risen regularly in the army to the rank of general, and to the command of the eighth regiment of dragoons, and to be governor of Berwick. General Tarleton married a lady of the Bertie family, which has connected him with the houses of Cholmondeley and Salisbury.

TARN; a department of France. (See Department.)

TARN ET GARONNE; a department of France. (See Department.)

TAROC; a game at cards, perhaps the most interesting, but also the most difficult. It is played with seventy-eight cards, and derives its name from the twenty-two trumps or tarocs in it, the most important of which is the excuse. If cards, as is said, are an invention of the Arabians, and carried by them to Spain, or by the crusaders to Italy, &c., the French and German cards, and the games founded on them, must be explained from national customs; but the taroc would seem to have remained in a great degree faithful to its Oriental origin. The difference between the taroc-cards and the common French consists in those twenty-two tarocs and four others, between the queen and knave, called cavals. TARPAWLING; a broad piece of canvass, well daubed with tar, and used to cover the hatchways of a ship at sea, to prevent the penetration of the rain or sea-water which may at times rush over the decks.

TARPEIA, the daughter of Tarpeius, the governor of the citadel of Rome, promised to open the gates of the city to the Sabines, provided they gave her their gold bracelets, or, as she expressed it, what they carried on their left hands. The Sabines consented, and, as they entered the gates, threw not only their bracelets, but their shields, upon Tarpeia, who was crushed under the weight. She was buried in the capitol, which, from her, was called the Tarpeian rock; and there Roman malefactors were afterwards thrown down a deep precipice.

TARQUINIUS, Lucius, surnamed Priscus, or the Elder, fifth king of Rome, was the son of a merchant of Corinth, who settled at Tarquinii, in Etruria. His wife, Tanaquil, urged him to repair to Rome, where he ingratiated himself both with the king Ancus Martius and the people; and the former conferred on him the guardianship of his two sons. These he superseded on their father's death, and procured the suffrages of the people for himself. His first step was to admit two hundred plebeians

into the senate; after which he engaged in a war with the Latins, and, having finally defeated a confederacy between them and the Sabines and Etrurians, obliged them to sue for peace. For this success, he was honored with a triumph; and he employed the spoils of war in erecting the Circus Maximus. (See Circus.) A confederacy of all the Etrurian tribes against the Romans followed, which, after a war of nine years' duration, terminated in the Etrurians acknowledging him for their sovereign. Tarquin enclosed the city with walls, and constructed those celebrated sewers, which, even at the summit of the Roman splendor, were viewed with admiration. (See Cloaca.) A new war breaking out with the Sabines, he obliged them to purchase peace by the surrender of all their fortresses. Tarquin, who had vowed a temple to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, now commenced it on the Tarpeian rock, and thus founded the principal seat of the Roman religion. (See Capitol.) He had reached his eightieth year, when the sons of Ancus procured his assassination (B. C. 576). Tanaquil kept his death a secret until the succession was secured to her son-in-law.-Servius Tullius Tarquinius, named Superbus, or the Proud, is supposed to have been grandson to Tarquinius Priscus. Servius Tullius married his two daughters to the brothers Aruns and Tarquin; the latter of whom was violent and ambitious, while his brother was mild and unaspiring. Their characters were reversed in their respective wives. tragical deaths of Aruns and the wife of Tarquin, and a criminal union between the latter and his sister-in-law Tullia, followed, and, finally, the murder of Servius, and the accession of Tarquin to the sovereignty, B. C. 534. He supported his usurpation by a band of foreign mercenaries; many of the senators went into banishment, and the plebeians found the yoke press as hardly on themselves. He undertook a war against the Volscians, as also against the Sabines, and was victorious in both instances. Returning to Rome, he twice triumphed, and employed the idle populace in finishing the great circus and sewers commenced by his grandfather. It was in the reign of this Tarquin that the Sibylline books were brought to Rome, where they were for many years resorted to for the purposes of superstition or state policy. Brutus (q. v.), taking advantage of the anger of the people by the unhappy fate of Lucretia (q. v.), procured a decree for the banishment of Tarquin and his sons; and the king, at

The

the age of seventy-six (B. C. 509), was obliged to abandon his capital, and take refuge in Etruria. The Tarquins interested some of the neighboring states in their favor, and Porsenna, king of the Clusini, an Etrurian tribe, invested Rome in their behalf, but, discovering treachery in their conduct, renounced their cause. The Latins also took arms in their favor; but the new republic finally triumphed over all its enemies. Tarquin at length, having seen all his sons perish in the field, retired to Cume, where he died in the ninetieth year of his age, and the fourteenth of his exile. (For a critical examination of the history of the Tarquins, as here given, see Niebuhr's History of Rome.)

TARRAGONA (anciently Tarraco); a town in Spain, in Catalonia; lon. 1° 15′ E.; lat. 41° 9 N.; population, 7500. It is situated on the coast of the Mediterranean, surrounded with walls and turrets, and has a magnificent Gothic cathedral. Under the Romans, it was the capital of the province Tarraconensis, and was, at one time, one of the chief cities of Spain. In 516, a council was held here. It was besieged and sacked, in 1811, by the French, under marshal Suchet.

TARRAS. (See Cements.)

TARSUS, an ancient city of Asia Minor, the capital of Cilicia, is said by Strabo to have been founded by Sardanapalus. It was adorned by a number of magnificent temples, as well as with a gymnasium and theatre. Its inhabitants enjoyed the privileges of Roman citizens, and the city rose to such distinction as to rival Athens, Antioch and Alexandria in wealth and grandeur, as well as in the arts and sciences. It is venerable as the birth-place of St. Paul. It is now a poor village. TARSUS OF BIRDS. (See Ornithology.) TARTAGLIA; a mask in the Neapolitan comedy.

TARTAR, CREAM OF. (See Cream of Tartar.)

TARTARIC ACID. This acid, as it exists in vegetables, is usually combined with potash, forming a salt with an excess of acid-the super-tartrate or bi-tartrate of potash. This salt is deposited in considerable quantity from the juice of the grape during its conversion into wine, or rather from the wine during the slow fermentation which it suffers in the cask. It does not appear to be a product of the fermentative process, but exists before this in the juice of the grape, and is merely separated. It also exists in other fruits, particularly in the tamarind, of which it

forms a considerable part. As deposited from wine, it is impure, having mingled with it coloring matter and tartrate of lime. In this state, it forms the crude tartar of commerce, named white or red tartar, according to its color. It is purified by boiling it in water, with the addition of a small quantity of fine clay, which attracts the coloring matter. By evaporation, it is obtained crystallized, forming the purified tartar, crystals, or cream of tartar of the shops. From this salt the tartaric acid is obtained, by adding to a solution of the super-tartrate of potash in boiling water, carbonate of lime in powder, as long as any effervescence is excited: the tartrate of lime which is formed and precipitated, being well washed, is decomposed by adding sulphuric acid equal in weight to the chalk that had been employed, previously diluted with half its weight of water, digesting them with a moderate heat: the sulphuric acid combines with the lime, and forms the sulphate, which, being of sparing solubility, is separated, while the tartaric acid is dissolved by the water, and, by evaporation, is obtained in a crystallized form. The crystals are tables or prisms, white, and nearly transparent. Their taste is sour, and they deeply redden vegetable blues. They are very soluble in water, and form a solution so concentrated as to have an oily appearance. By the action of very strong nitric acid, tartaric acid is converted into oxalic acid. The crystals are composed of acid 66 and water 9 in 75 parts. The acid appears to be composed of

Tartaric acid is decomposed by heat, affording, among other products, a white sublimate, which is a peculiar acid, named, from its origin, pyro-tartaric acid, which has been regarded by some as acetic acid disguised by the addition of a little oily matter. Tartaric acid combines with the alkalies and earths, forming salts named tartrates. The acid appears to have a peculiar tendency to enter into combination with more than one base, and to form ternary salts. It has also a tendency to form salts with an excess of acid, in uniting with those bases, with which it forms soluble compounds. Tartrate of potash is usually formed by neutralizing the excess of acid in the bi-tartrate, by the additionbonate of potash. From