Soon after this the notable Hampton Roads convention or conference took place. It was brought about mainly by the efforts of Francis P Blair, Sr. This gentleman, who was a mutual friend of both Messrs. Davis and Lincoln, was allowed to go to Richmond, Va., and interview Mr. Davis, on the subject of peace negotiations, it being understood that he acted unofficially and on his own responsibility, the government being free to accept or reject the result of his efforts. Mr. Davis in writing declared his willingness to enter a conference "to secure peace to the two countries." Report being made to Lincoln, he consented to receive any agent sent informally "with a view of securing peace to the people of our common country." Upon this latter proposition three Confederate commissioners came to Hampton Roads, where President Lincoln and Secretary Seward met them, and on February 3, 1865, a conference was held. The propositions offered by the Confederates were a cessation of war, the questions at issue to be adjourned for future settlement, the combatants in the meantime to unite in the expulsion of the French from Mexico, and the enforcement of the Monroe doctrine. Mr. Lincoln declined these propositions and adhered to his original propositions, which he declared indispensable. These were three in number, and were as follows: First, the restoration of the national authority throughout all the States; second, no receding by the executive of the United States on the slavery question; third, no cessation of hostilities short of an end of the war, and the disbanding of all forces hostile to the gov ernment. These terms were rejected by the Confederate commissioners, and the interview was barren of result. The year 1864 saw Lincoln's first term nearing its end, and the Democratic party making desperate efforts to regain the prestige it had lost in 1860. Every failure in the war, the slow progress made in subduing the rebellion, and the long continuance of the fratricidal strife were urged against the president, and attempts were made to make political capital for the opposition out of the most trivial circumstances, and even questions of public policy of the most patent nature were held up as grave derelictions, and as examples of the incapacity of Mr. Lincoln. The failure of McClellan was attributed to official interference with his plans by the administration, and other equally frivolous charges were made. So great was the opposition to Mr. Lincoln's administration, that some of the Democrats (notably Vallandigham, who in defiance of his sentence had returned to Ohio) openly ignored and defied the orders of the president; the Democratic convention of that year denounced the war as a failure, and called for a cessation of hostilities, and nominated McClellan, the hero of successive defeats, for president. In addition to this it was claimed that a conspiracy existed to defeat the further draft. All these circumstances had the effect of consolidating the war party, and Mr. Lincoln was unanimously nominated, and McClellan was defeated by nearly 1,000,000 popular votes, and nearly 200 electoral

votes.

This was a triumphant vindication of the grand man who had guided the country through a peril without parallel in the history of the world, and the strife of which was then almost ended.

Sherman in the south had nearly completed the work begun by Grant, while the latter, transferred to the North to confront the ablest enemy of the Union, was delivering the last blows of the tremendous combat which the two giants had waged. Lincoln's second term of office began on March 4, 1865, and in less than a month thereafter Richmond was evacuated, and by April 9th the final blow was dealt by Grant to the army of Lee, who surrendered at Appomattox courthouse. By April 26th the last army of the Confederacy was in

possession of the victorious Union forces, Jos. E. Johnston on that date surrendering to Sherman. Thus was brought to a successful close the most gigantic struggle the world had ever seen-a struggle in which over 4,000,000 men had been engaged, and which had cost the United States Government $2,700,000,000, to say nothing of the values lost and expended by the South. And through all this time, the rugged, unpretending backwoodsman had guided the nation through its peril to success, his faith never faltering, his determination never wavering, although confronted by armed rebellion on the outside and by domestic dissension within. Surely he was a "man of destiny."

At

Mr. Lincoln entered Richmond on April 3d, being at the time of the surrender on a visit to the army in the field, and then on his return to Washington on the evening of April 11th he made his last public address, in which he delineated a plan for the reconstruction and rehabilitation of the conquered States. This address was characteristic of the man-full of generosity to the fallen rebellion, and hopeful of an early settlement of all difficulties. These plans he never lived to mature and carry out. It seems that his work was done, and that, having performed the task Providence had assigned him, he was to be called home. On the 14th he, while seated in the box at Ford's theater in Washington, fell before the assassin's pistol. The facts of his death are known to all the world and need not be given here. the same time Secretary Seward was wounded by another of the band-the intention being to destroy the entire government at one blow. The assassin of the president, John Wilkes Booth, a crazy actor, was shot after a chase across the Potomac into Virginia, in a barn in Caroline county, and five of the conspirators, one of them a woman (Mrs. Surratt), were hanged in Washington a short time after ward. The whole country was grief-stricken at this terrible tragedy, southern people as well as northern recognizing that a great, good, and generous man had fallen before partisan hate and fanatic enthusiasm. What the effect of his death was on the subsequent history of the country no man can tell, but it was then the general feeling that the wisest and best man in the republic was gone-and it came home with terrible force to the people of the south that their best friend, he who more than anyone else would have softened the rigors of reconstruction, was no more.

The president was the father of four children-only one surviving at present (1890), the Hon. Robert T. Lincoln, who has been secretary of war and is now United States Minister to England.

LINDAU, a town in the government district of Swabia and Neuburg, Bavaria, and the central part of the transit trade between that country and Switzerland, is situated on two islands off the northeastern shore of Lake Constance. Population (1890), 6,000.

LINDLEY, JOHN, botanist, was born at Catton, near Norwich, England, in 1799, and died in 1865.

LINDSAY, the chief town of Victoria county, Ontario, is situated on the river Scugog, at the junction of several railroads. It contains three banks, a number of good stores and factories, and has an extensive trade in grain and lumber. Population (1890), 6,000.

LINDSEY, THEOPHILUS, an English theological writer, was born in Middlewich, Cheshire, England, in 1723, and died in 1808.

LINEN MANUFACTURES. Under this term are comprehended all yarns spun and fabrics woven from flax fiber. The cultivation and preparation of the fiber, and its treatment till it reaches the market as a commercial product, are dealt with under FLAX.

From the earliest periods of human history till almost

pro

the close of the eighteenth century the linen manufact- | ure was one of the most extensive and widely disseminated of the domestic industries of European countries. The preparation and spinning of yarn gave occupation to women of all classes; and the operations of weaving employed large numbers of both sexes. The industry was most largely developed in Russia, Austria, Germany, Holland, Belgium, the northern provinces of France, and certain parts of England, in the north of Ireland, and throughout Scotland; and in these countries its importance was generally recognized by the enactment of special laws, having for their object the tection and extension of the trade. The inventions of Arkwright, Hargreaves, and Crompton in the later part of the eighteenth century, benefiting, as they did, almost exclusively, the art of cotton spinning, and the unparal leled development of that branch of textile manufactures, largely due to the ingenuity of these inventors, gave the linen trade as it then existed a fatal blow. Domestic spinning, and with it hand-loom weaving, immediately began to shrink; a large and most respectable section of the operative classes in western Europe found their employment dwindling away, and the wages they earned from their diminished labor insufficient to ward off starvation. The trade which had supported whole villages and provinces entirely disappeared, and the linen manufacture, in attenuated dimensions and changed conditions, took refuge in spe- | cial localities, where it resisted, not unsuccessfully, the further assaults of cotton, and, with varying fortunes, rearranged its relations in the community of textile industries. The linen industries of Great Britain were the first to suffer from the aggression of cotton; more slowly the influence of the rival textile traveled across Continental countries; and even to the present day, in Russia, and in other regions remote from great commercial highways, the domestic manufacture of linens holds its place almost as it has done from the earliest period. In 1810 Napoleon I., with a view partly to promote Continental linen industries, and partly to strike a blow at the great British manufacture of cotton, issued a proclamation offering a reward of one million francs to any inventor who should devise the best machinery for the spinning of flax yarn. Within a few weeks thereafter Phillippe de Girard patented in France important inventions for flax spinning by both dry and wet methods. His inventions, however, did not receive the promised reward, and were indeed neglected in his native country. In 1815 he was invited by the Austrian Government to establish a spinning-mill at Hirtenberg, near Vienna, which was run with his machinery for a number of years, but ultimately it failed to prove a commercial success. In the meantime, however, English inventors had applied themselves to the task of adapting machines to the preparation and spinning of flax. The foundation of machine spinning of flax was laid by John Kendrew and Thomas Porthouse of Darlington, who, in 1787, secured a patent for "a mill or machine upon new principles for spinning yarn from hemp, tow, flax, or wool." These machines, imperfect as they were, attracted much notice, and were introduced in various localities both in England and Scotland into mills fitted specially for flax spinning. By innumerable successive improvements and modifications, the inven tion of Kendrew and Porthouse developed into the perfect system of machinery with which, at the present day, spinning-mills are furnished; but progress in adapting flax fibers for mechanical spinning, and linen yarn for weaving cloth by power loom, was much slower than in the corresponding case of cotton.

The implements used in the preparation of linen yarn in ancient and modern times, down to the end of the

eighteenth century, were of the most primitive and inex pensive description. Till comparatively recent times, the sole spinning implements were the spindle and distaff. The spindle, which is the fundamental ap paratus in all spinning machinery, was nothing more nor less than a round stick or rod of wood about twelve inches in length, tapering toward each extremity, and having at its upper end a notch or slit into which the yarn might be caught or fixed. In general, a ring er "whorl" of stone or clay was passed round the upper part of the spindle to give it momentum and steadiness when in rotation. The distaff, or rock, was a rather longer and stronger bar or stick, around one end of which, in a loose coil or ball, the fibrous material to be spun was wound. The other extremity of the distaff was carried under the left arm, or fixed in the girdle at the left side, so as to have the coil of flax in a convenient position for drawing out to yarn. A prepared end of yarn being fixed into the notch, the spinster, by a smart rolling motion of the spindle with the right hand against the right leg, threw it out from her, spinning in the air, while, with the left hand, she drew from the rock an additional supply of fiber which was formed into a uniform and equal strand with the right. The yarn being sufficiently twisted was released from the notch, wound around the lower part of the spindle, and again fixed in the notch at the point insufficiently twisted; and so the rotating, twisting, and drawing-out operations went on till the spindle was full. So persistent is an ancient and primitive art of this description that to the present day, in remote districts of Scotland the country where machine spinning has attained its highest development-spinning with rock and spindle is yet practiced; and, rude as these implements are, yarn of extraordinary delicacy, beauty, and tenacity has been spun by their agency. The first improvement on the primitive spindle was found in the construction of the hand-wheel, in which the spindle, mounted in a frame, was fixed horizontally, and rotated by a band passing round it and a large wheel, set in the same framework. Such a wheel became known in Europe about the middle of the sixteenth century, but it appears to have been in use for cotton spinning in the East from time immemorial. At a later date, which cannot be fixed, the treadle motion was attached to the spinning wheel, enabling the spinster to sit at work with both hands free; and the introduction of the two-handed or doublespindle wheel, with flyers or twisting arms on the spindles, completed the series of mechanical inprovements effected on flax spinning till the end of the eighteenth century. The common use of the two-handed wheel throughout the rural districts of Ireland and Scotland is a matter still within the recollection of middle-aged people; but spinning wheels are now seldom seen.

The modern manufacture of linen divides itself into two branches, spinning and weaving, to which may be added the bleaching and various finishing processes, which, in the case of many linen textures, are laborious undertakings and important branches of industry. Flax, when received into the mills, has to undergo a train of preparatory operations before it arrives at the stage of being twisted into yarn. The whole operations in yarn manufacture comprise heckling, preparing, and spinning.

Linen fabrics are numerous in variety and widely different in their qualities, appearance and applications, ranging from heavy sailcloth and rough sacking to the most delicate cambrics and lawns. Linen fabrics have several advantages over cotton, resulting principally from the microscopic structure and length of the flax fiber. The cloth is much smoother and more lustrous than cotton cloth; and, presenting a less "wooly" surface, it does not soil so readily, nor absorb and retain moist

In the autumn of 1729, Linnæus was engaged intently examining some plants growing in the academical garden, when a clergyman asked him what he was studying, whether he understood botany, whence he came, and how long he had been busied in the study. After being questioned at length, he was requested to follow his companion home; there he discovered him to be Dr. Olaf Celsius, professor of theology, at that time working at his Hierobotanicon, which saw the light nearly twenty years later. When the professor saw Linnæus' collections he was still more impressed, and, finding him necessitous, he offered him board and lodging; he afterward admitted him to close intimacy, and allowed him the free use of his rich library. The temporary adjunctus of the faculty of medicine being incompetent, Linnæus, by the recommendation of Celsius, was able to get some private pupils, and thereby to assume a more creditable appearance.

At this time there was only one medical student who distinguished himself by diligence in study, and that was Peter Arctedius, who afterward styled himself. Artedi. A close friendship sprang up between the two young men; they studied in concert, and vied with each other in their attainments, with perfect good temper though of very diverse dispositions. Linnæus was sovereign in ornithology, entomology, and botany, Artedi reserving to himself the umbelliferous plants, fishes, and amphibia. A silence, almost total, prevailed in the university at this time on topics of natural history; during his whole curriculum Linnæus did not hear a single public lecture delivered on anatomy, botany, or chem. istry.

During this period of intense receptivity, he came upon a critique which ultimately led to the establishment of his artificial system of plant classification. This was a review of Vaillant's Sermo de Structura Florum, Leyden, 1718, a thin quarto in French and Latin; it set him upon examining the stamens and pistils of flowers, and, becoming convinced of the paramount importance of these organs, he formed the idea of basing a system of arrangement upon them. Another work by Wallin having fallen into his hands, he drew up a short treatise on the sexes of plants, and showed it to Doctor Celsius, who put it into the hands of the younger Olaf Rudbeck, at that time professor of botany in the university. In the following year Rudbeck, whose advanced age compelled him to lecture by deputy, appointed Linnæus his adjunctus; in the spring of 1730, therefore, the latter began his lectures, and was accompanied by many pupils on his botanical excursions. The academic garden was entirely remodeled under his auspices, and furnished with many rare species, he being now in a position to direct the gardener, whereas in the year before he had actually solicited appointment to the vacant post of gardener, which was refused him on the ground of his capacity for better things.

His evenings were devoted to the preparation of his epoch-making books, which were issued several years afterward in the Netherlands. His position at the university having become unpleasant, he readily undertook to explore the little known country of Lapland, at the cost of the Academy of Sciences of Upsala. In 1733 Linnæus was engaged in teaching the method of assay. ing ores, and hoped to be allowed to lecture on botany;

He traveled by Lübeck and Hamburg; detecting a seven-headed hydra to be a fabrication at the latter, he was obliged to quit the town in haste to avoid the wrath of its possessor. From Altona he went by sea to Amsterdam, staying there a week; he then proceeded to Harderwijk, where he went through the requisite examination, and defended his thesis on the cause of intermittent fever. His scanty funds were now nearly spent, but he passed on through Haarlem to Leyden; there he called on Gronovius, who, returning the visit, was shown the Systema Nature in MS., and was so greatly astonished at it that he sent it to press at his own expense. The first edition was in eight folio sheets; the subsequent editions were in 8vo.; and the twelfth immensely enlarged edition appeared during the author's lifetime. This famous system, which, artificial as it was, substituted order for confusion, largely made its way on account of the lucid and admirable laws, and comments on them, which were issued almost at the same time. (See BOTANY.) Boerhaave, whom Linnæus saw after waiting eight days for admission, recommended him to Burman at Amsterdam, where he stayed a twelvemonth, living at the house of the professor. While there he issued his Fundamenta Botanica, an unassuming small octavo, which has exercised immense influence. The wealthy banker Cliffort having invited Linnæus to visit his magnificent garden at Hartecamp, he remained there, living like a prince, but working most assiduously in the garden and library, both of which were kept up without regard to cost. His Flora Lapponica was now printed, containing a description of the genus Linnea, by his friend Gronovius; he selected this plant to bear his name, from a similarity, as he thought, between it and himself.

In 1736 Linnæus visited England. He was warmly recommended by Boerhaave to Sir Hans Sloane, but the old collector seems to have received him coldly. A better reception awaited him at Oxford, where Doctor Shaw welcomed him cordially; Dillenius, the professor of botany there, was icy at first, but afterward thawed completely, kept him a month, and even offered to share the emoluments of the chair with him.

On his return to the Netherlands he completed the printing of his Genera Plantarum, a volume which must be considered the starting point of modern systematic botany; Tournefort formed many genera, but Linnæus was the first to circumscribe them. During the same year, 1737, Linnæus finished arranging Cliffort's collection of plants, living and dried; these were described in the Hortus Cliffortianus, a folio illustrated with engravings by Ehret; this book was entirely written in nine months. During the compilation he used to "amuse" himself with drawing up the Critica Botanica, also printed in the Netherlands. But this

strenuous and unremitting labor told upon him; the atmosphere of the Low Countries seemed to oppress him beyond endurance; he resisted all Cliffort's entreaties to remain with him, and started homeward.

Van Royen managed to detain him a year at Leyden, to help in rearranging the garden, thereby offending Cliffort, whom he had quitted on the plea of hastening back to Sweden. Linnæus now published his Classes Plantarum, and almost at the same time appeared Van Royen's Hortus Leydensis and Gronovius' Flora Virginica, both of these being drawn up on the Linnæan system. In 1738 Boerhaave pressed Linnæus to accept a post at Surinam; he declined this for himself, but passed it on to Johan Bartsch of Königsberg, a member with himself of a select club of naturalists at Leyden. Bartsch ultimately fell a victim to the climate of that colony.

While residing at Leyden Linnæus was warned that one of his acquaintances was endeavoring to supplant | him in the affections of Sara Moré; he intended to set out at once, but was attacked by ague before he could start. Cliffort, hearing of this, took Linnæus to his own house again, and would not suffer him to depart until he was sufficiently well. His complete recovery, however, did not take place until he had gained the higher country of Brabant, where, in one day, he felt himself entirely renovated. He continued his journey to Paris, where he visited Antoine and Bernard de Jussieu, botanizing with the latter. Abandoning all notion of returning through Germany, he went to Rouen, sailed for Sweden, and landed at Helsingborg.

Linnæus established himself in September, 1738, as physician in Stockholm, but, being unknown as a medical man, no one at first dared to consult him, a great change from the attention paid to him abroad; he himself declared "that, had he not been in love, he would certainly have left his native country." By degrees he found patients, was then appointed naval physician at Stockholm, with minor appointments, and was married on June 26, 1739.

Early in 1740 Rudbeck died, and Roberg resigned; the chairs of botany and medicine at Upsala being thus vacant, Rosen and Linnæus were chosen respectively to fill them. The former rivals afterward agreed to exchange professorships to their mutual benefit; in 1741, previous to this exchange, Linnæus traveled through Olan 1 and Gothland, by command of the state, publishing his results in Oländska och Gothländska Resa, 1745. The index to this volume shows the first employment of trivial names in nomenclature.

Henceforward his life was a continuous course of prosperity, his time being taken up by teaching and the preparation of other works. In the year 1745 he issued his Flora Suecica and Fauna Suecica, the latter having occupied his attention during fifteen years; afterward, two volumes of observations made during journeys in Sweden, Wästgöta Resa, Stockholm, 1747, and Skanska Resa, Stockholm. 1751. He examined the collections made many years before in Ceylon by Hermann, the full publication taking place in his Flora Zeylanica, Stockholm, 1747. In 1748 he brought out his Hortus Upsaliensis, showing that he had added 1,100 species to those formerly in cultivation in that garden. In 1750 his Philosophia Botanica was given to the world; it consists of a commentary on the various axioms he had published in 1735 in his Fundamenta Botanica, and was dictated to his pupil Löfling.

He catalogued the Queen's Museum at Drotningholm, and the King's at Ulrichsdal, but the most important work of this period of his life is unquestionably his Species Plantarum, Stockholm, 1753-second edition being issued in 1762. In this volume the trivial names are

fully set forth; although they had been previously shadowed forth by Linnæus and others, yet to him belongs the merit of establishing the use of a single epithet in addition to the generic name. In the same year Linnæus was created knight of the Polar Star, the first time a scientific man had been raised to that honor in Sweden.

In 1755 he was invited by the king of Spain to settle in that country, with a liberal salary, and full liberty of conscience, but he declined on the ground that whatever merits he possessed should be devoted to his country's service; Löfling was sent instead, but died within two years. He was enabled now to purchase the estates of Söfja and Hammarby; at the latter he built his museum of stone to guard against loss by fire. His lectures at the university drew men from all parts of the world; the normal number of students at Upsala was 500; while he occupied the chair of botany there it rose to 1,500. In 1761 a patent of nobility was granted, antedated to 1757, from which time Linnæus was styled Carl von Linné; his arms were those now borne by the Linnean Society of London. To his great delight the tea plant was introduced alive into Europe in 1763; this year also his son Carl was allowed to assist his father in his professional duties, and to be trained as his successor. At the age of sixty Linné's memory began to fail; an apoplectic attack in 1774 greatly weakened him; two years afterward he lost the use of his right side; and he died January 10, 1778, of an ulceration of the bladder. He was buried in the cathedral of Upsala, with every token of regret.

LINNEL, JOHN, a gifted English painter, was born in London on June 16, 1792. His father being a carver and gilder, Linnel was early brought into contact with artists, and when he was ten years old he was already drawing and selling his portraits in chalk and pencil. His first artistic instruction was received from Benjamin West, and he spent a year in the house of John Varley the water-color painter, where he had William Hunt and Mulready as fellow pupils, and made the acquaintance of Shelley, Godwin, and other men of mark and individuality. In 1805 he was admitted a student of the Royal Academy, where he obtained medals for drawing, modeling, and sculpture. He was also trained as an Saul, one of Varley's most impressive pictures. In engraver, and executed a transcript of the Burial of after life he frequently occupied himself with the burin, publishing, in 1834, a series of outlines from Michelangelo's frescoes in the Sistine chapel, and, in 1840, superintending the issue of a selection of plates from the pictures in Buckingham Palace, one of them, a Titian landscape, being mezzotinted by himself. At first he supported himself mainly by miniature painting, and by the execution of larger portraits, such as the likenesses of Mulready, Whately, Peel, and Carlyle. He also painted many subjects like the St. John Preaching, the Covenant of Abraham, and the Journey to Emmaus, in which, while the landscape background is unusually prominently insisted upon, the figures are yet of suffi cient size and importance to supply the title of the work. But it is mainly in connection with his long series of paintings of pure landscape that his name is known to the public. His works commonly deal with some scene of typical uneventful English landscape, which is made impressive by a gorgeous effect of sunrise or sunset. His art proved exceptionally remunerative; he was able to command very large prices for his pictures, and about 1850 he purchased a property at Redhill, Surrey, where he resided till his death, on January 20, 1882.

LINNET, originally a somewhat generalized bird's name, but latterly specialized for the Fringilla canna