(about 25 per cent.) is effected when glass only is used. | field, or by the motion of a magnetic field in the neigh All kinds of apparatus may conveniently be ranged either | borhood of a conductor. For the general laws of under the catoptric system, where metallic reflection electromagnetic induction see ELECTRICITY. Since, if only is used, the dioptric, where the material employed is the current in a closed circuit be in one direction when wholly glass producing refraction and total reflection, the number of lines of force is increasing, it will be in or the catadioptric, in which both glass and metal are the opposite direction when they are diminishing, it is employed. clear that the current in each part of the circuit which LIGHTING, ELECTRIC. Artificial light is gen- passes through the magnetic field must be alternate in erally produced by raising some body to a high tem- direction. Hence also the current in the wire outside perature. If the temperature of a solid body be greater the machine must also be alternate, unless something of than that of surrounding bodies it parts with some of its the nature of a commutator be employed to reverse the energy in the form of radiation. While the temperature connections of the internal wires, in which the current is low these radiations are not of a kind to which the is induced, and the external circuit. We have then eye is sensitive; they are exclusively radiations less re- broadly two classes of dynamo-electric machines:-The frangible and of greater wave-length than red light, simplest, the alternate current machine, where no comand may be called infra-red. As the temperature is in- mutator is used; and the continuous current, in which a creased the infra-red radiations increase, but pres commutator is used to change the connections to the ently there are added radiations which the eye perceives external circuit just at the moment when the direction as red light. As the temperature is further increased, of the current would change. the red light increases, and yellow, green, and blue rays are successively thrown off. On pushing the temperature to a still higher point, radiations of a wave-length shorter even than violet light are produced, to which the eye is insensitive, but which act strongly on certain chemical substances; these may be called ultra-violet rays. The problem of the artificial production of light with economy of energy is the same as that of raising some body to such a temperature that it shall give as large a proportion as possible of those rays which the eye happens to be capable of feeling. For practical purposes this temperature is the highest temperature we can produce. As an illustration of the luminous effect of the high temperature produced by converting other forms of energy into heat within a small space, consider the following statements:-120 cubic feet of fifteen-candle gas will, if burned in ordinary gas burners, give a light of 360 standard candles for one hour. The heat produced by the combustion is equivalent to about 60,000,000 foot-pounds. If this gas be burned in a gasengine, about 8,000,000 foot-pounds of useful work will be done outside the engine, or four-horse power for one hour. This is sufficient to drive an "A" Grammering may at any instant be supposed divided in halves machine for one hour; the energy of the current will be about 6,400,000 foot-pounds per hour, about half of which, or only 3,200,000 foot-pounds, is converted into radiant energy in the electric arc, but this electric arc will radiate a light of 2,000 candles when viewed hori, zontally, and two or three times as much when viewed from below. Hence 3,000,000 foot-pounds changed to heat in the electric arc may be said roughly to affect our eyes six times as much as 60,000,000 foot-pounds changed to heat in an ordinary gas burner. Owing to the high temperature at which it remains solid, and to its great emissive power, the radiant body used for artificial illumination is nearly always some form of carbon. The consideration of electric lighting naturally divides into two parts-the production of suitable electric currents, and the conversion of the energy of such currents into radiations. Although electric lights were first produced from currents generated by batteries, they have only attained commercial importance by the use of machines for converting mechanical energy into electric current. Dynamo-Electric Machines.—In the widest sense a dynamo-electric machine may be defined as an apparatus for converting mechanical energy into the energy of electrostatic charge, or mechanical power into its equivalent electric current through a conductor. Under this definition would be included the electrophorus and all frictional machines; but the term is used in a more restricted sense for those machines which produce electric currents by the motion of conductors in a magnetic | It has been shown that to produce a continuous current a commutator is needed. If there is but a single wire in the armature, or if there are more than one, but all are under maximum electromotive force at the same time, the current outside the machine, though always in the same direction, will be far from uniform. This irregularity may be reduced to any extent by multiply. ing the wires of the armature, giving each its own connection to the outer circuit, and so placing them that the electromotive force attains a maximum successively in the several circuits. A practically uniform electric current was first commercially produced with the ring armature of Pacinotti as perfected by Gramme. Suppose a straight bar, electromagnet, surrounded by a coil of copper wire from end to end. Let the electromagnet be bent with the copper wire upon it until its ends meet and it forms an annulus or anchor ring. Let the two ends of the copper wire be connected, so that the iron core is surrounded by an endless copper wire, and you have the Pacinotti or Gramme ring. This ring rotates about its axis of figure between two diametrically opposed magnetic poles of opposite name. The by a diameter perpendicular to the diameter joining the center of the poles. Equal and opposite electromotive forces act on the copper wire of the two halves, giving two opposite electric poles half way between the magnetic poles. If electric connections could be maintained with these two points as the ring revolves, a continuous current would be drawn off. In practice this is only approximated to. The copper wire is divided into a series of equal sections, and at the point of junction of each section with its neighbor a connection is made with a plate of a commutator, having as many divisions as there are divisions of the copper coil. Collecting brushes bear upon the commutator plates, which are connected to the coil nearest to the point of maximum potential. Owing to the self-induction and mutual induction of the several coils of the armature, this point is displaced in the direction of rotation when a current is being drawn off, to an extent greater as the current is greater in relation to the strength of the magnetic field. The magnetic field in the Gramme and other continuous dynamo-electric machines may be produced in several ways. Permanent magnets of steel may be used as in the smaller machines now made, and in all the earlier machines; these are frequently called magneto-machines. Electromagnets, excited by a current from a smaller dynamo-electric machine, were introduced by Wilde; these may be described shortly as dynamos with separate exciters. The plan of using the whole current from the armature of the machine itself for exciting the magnets was proposed almost simultane ously by Siemens, Wheatstone, and S. A. Varley. For some purposes it is advantageous to divide the current from the armature, sending the greater part through the external circuit, and a smaller portion through the electromagnet, which is then of very much higher resistance, as the electromagnet is a shunt to the external circuit. Machines so arranged are sometimes called shunt dynamos. The last two arrangements depend on residual magnetism to initiate the current, and below a certain speed of rotation give no practically useful electromotive force. arc. causing an intensely high temperature and consequently brilliant light. The pieces of carbon gradually burned away, the positive carbon being consumed more rapidly than the negative. When an electric current passes through a conducting solid body maintained at a constant temperature, the difference of potential on the two sides of the body has a constant ratio to the current passing through; this constant ratio is known as the electric resistance of the body at its then temperature. No such constant ratio exists in the case of the electric If you increase the current passing between two In discussing the comparative efficiency of dynamo- carbons at a small distance apart, you do not materially machines there are two points to be examined—(1) how change the difference of potential at the two ends of much of the power applied is converted into energy of the electric arc. It is, therefore, not strictly appropriate current in the whole circuit, whether external or in the to speak of the resistance of the electric arc; the apwires of the armature or of the electromagnets, and (2) | propriate constant, or approximate constant, for an how much of the power is available outside of the ma- electric arc is the difference of potential between the chine. The practical sources of loss are friction of two sides of the arc. However near the carbons apbearings, and of the brushes on the commutator, elec- proach without touching, this does not fall below a certric currents induced in the iron of the machine, pro-tain minimum value, and as the carbons are separated duction of heat in the copper wire of the armature due its value increases. In ordinary practice with continto its resistance, and production of heat in the wire of uous currents the potential of the electric arc may be the electromagnet due to its resistance. There is also taken as ranging from thirty-five to forty-five volts. If a certain loss in sparks upon the commutator. The the current in amperes be multiplied by the difference currents in the iron ore are reduced by dividing the iron of potential in volts, and the product be divided by 746, by insulating surfaces perpendicular to the electromo- we have the power used in the arc itself in horse-power, tive force tending to produce such currents. The loss that is, the power effectively used in lighting. The by resistance of wire in armature and magnets greatly mechanism of an electric lamp has two functions to perdepends on the dimensions of the machine." form: it has first to bring the carbons into contact and then part them, or simply part them if they are initially in contact when the light is started, or when it is accidentally extinguished (this is called striking the arc); it has also to bring the carbons together as they are consumed. The former function is always accomplished by an electro-magnet or solenoid. In the electric candles, use. The simplest way of obtaining light from an electric current is by passing it through a considerable resistance in such small compass that the conductor becomes intensely hot. It is of course necessary that the conductor shall be able to endure a very high temperature without injury. Iridium and platinum-iridium wire have been employed, but are too expensive for commerciale.g., those of Jablochkoff, Rapieff, Wilde, or Siemens, Hitherto the only available substance is carbon, in the form of a thread or filament. This carbon must be protected from the air by inclosing it in a glass globe from which every trace of air has been removed. An electric current passing through a carbon filament obeys Ohm's law, as through a metallic wire. But in metals the resistance increases as the temperature rises, in carbon it diminishes. The filament or thread of carbon being inclosed in a vacuous space, the energy of current converted into heat in the filament only leaves it in the shape of radiations. To light economically, it is necessary to heat the filament to such a temperature that the greatest possible proportion of these radiations shall belong to that part of the spectrum to which the eye is sensitive, i.e., to the highest temperature the filament will stand. The fundamental problem of incandescent electric lighting is to produce a carbon thread the substance of which shall permanently stand the highest possible temperature, to make good electrical connection between the ends of the filament and the conducting wires, and above all to secure that the thread shall be uniform throughout its length, for the current which can be safely used is limited by the weakest point of the filament. Several inventors have recently succeeded in meeting these conditions, but their relative merit and priority cannot be discussed here. The lamps of Werdermann, Reynier, and Joel are intermediate between arc lamps and incandescent lamps, and present the distinctive advantages of neither. Sir Humphry Davy discovered that if two pieces of carbon were placed in contact with each other, and the current from a battery of a sufficient number of elements were passed from one piece to the other, the current did not cease when the carbons were slightly parted, but that the current passed across the intervening space, the carbons are approximately parallel, and they burn down as does a candle - the are being forced to the ends of the carbons by the repulsion of the current in the carbons on the electric arc. In the ordinary arc lamps the carbons have their axes in the same line, and their approach or recission must be controlled by the current passing through, by the difference of potential, or by both combined. When the same current passes through a succession of lamps in series, it is clear that the regulation cannot be by the current alone, as this is the same for all the lamps, and might be maintained constant by the adjustment of any one only of the lamps. The first generating machines were magneto-electric "revolving coils in front of permanent steel magnets (or revolving magnets in front of coils), but later machines are "dynamo-electric," based on a discovery simultaneously made by Werner Siemens, Varley, and Wheatstone, that by revolving coils in front of soft iron electro-magnets, the residual magnetism in the iron is gradually augmented, dynamic force being thus converted into electricity. The currents created by machines of either sort are alternate, but in most modern lights the alternate currents are made continuous by the use of a commutator. The invention of methods of using this powerful light received a great stimulus in 1876, when Jablochkoff's "candle" was invented. The Serrin, Lontin, Rapieff, and Brush lamps are different arrangements for the production of light by means of the "arc," the adjustment of the carbons being effected by an automatic electro-magnetic regulator. The above described lamps are known as arc lights, but of late the so-called incandescent lamps have acquired a great importance. They are simply applications of the well-known principle that the heating effect of a current in any part of a circuit is proportional to resistance of that part. Edison, Lane Fox, Maxim, and Swan have constructed such lamps, which differ only in details. A thin carbon filament, inclosed in a hermetically sealed vacuum tube, so as to prevent oxidation, is made luminous by the passage of a strong current along it. Electric lighting for streets, public buildings, and houses is still in its infancy, but the system is being extended with great rapidity, especially in the United States. Many cities, even of comparatively small size, are lighted in greater or less degree by the arc system. The incandescent system is applied to hotels, theaters, and public buildings generally, and is deservedly a favorite as an adjunct to artistic decoration as well as a safe and efficient illuminant. LIGHTNING. See METEOROLOGY and THUNDER STORMS. LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR, or LIGHTNING ROD, is the name usually given to apparatus designed to protect buildings or ships from the destructive effects of lightning. The title is misleading; for when properly constructed, lightning rods serve rather to prevent the occurrence than to ward off the effects of a flash of lightning. Damping the enemy's powder would be a most efficient precaution against cannon-shot, but it would be very inappropriately termed fortification. When a conductor charged with electricity is brought near to another conductor connected with the earth, it induces on it a charge of the opposite kind of electricity. The result is an attractive force which tends to bring the conductors nearer to one another, and to augment the electric density on their opposed surfaces. When the density is sufficiently great, there is rupture of the dielectric (air) between the conductors, and the disruptive discharge takes place as an electric spark. If one of the conductors have projective points or angles, the electric density is usually much greater at such places than over the rest of the surface. But, though the density is great at such places, the charge on them is usually small, and the discharge takes place in an almost continuous manner by a brush or glow. When, for instance, a large conductor, connected with an electric machine, is giving a rapid succession of bright sparks to a ball connected with the ground, the sparks cease as soon as a pointed wire, connected with the ground, is held in the vicinity of the conductor. No discharge is heard, but in the dark a faint glow is seen at the end of the wire, which continues as long as the machine is turned. Remove the wire and the sparks instantly recommence. This glow is known to sailors as St. Elmo's (San Telmo's) fire, in old days Castor and Pollux. Suppose now one of the conductors to be a thundercloud, the other the surface of the earth, the discharge will usually take place between the places of greatest surface density; and it will in general be the more gradual as these are more pointed, and of le-s capacity. Hence Franklin's idea of furnishing buildings or other prominent objects with a projecting metal spike well connected with the ground for the purpose of preventing a lightning discharge by substituting for it what is practically a continuous electric current. To effect this object thoroughly, only three things are necessary: (1) the points should so project from the building or ship to be protected as to prevent any great development of electric density elsewhere than on themselves; (2) they should be effectually connected with the earth; (3) the connecting rod ought to be so good a conductor as not to be injured even by a powerful electric discharge. The first of these conditions is realized by making the rod branch out to all the salient portions of the building or ship, and furnishing it with points prejecting || beyond each of them. No general rule can be laid down as to the extent of the region protected by a sin- This The third condition, so far as experience can guide us, seems to be effectually realized by making the conductor throughout of iron rod of an inch in diameter, or of copper rod not less in diameter than three-eighths of an inch. Such rods of equal length have nearly the same conducting power, and therefore would have equal amounts of heat developed in them by a given discharge. But if such a discharge took place, the copper would be heated much more than the iron, in consequence of its smaller mass per foot (the specific heat being approximately the same in the two materials). Hence iron is, in this respect, preferable to copper, if the conducting power of the rods are equal. Against this may be set the objections that it is easily injured by rust, and is not nearly so flexible as the equivalent copper rod. LIGNITE. See COAL. LIGNUM VITE. See GUAIACUM. LIGUORI, LIGUORIANISM. The name Liguorianism has been popularly given in the present century to a particular school of moral and devotional theology in the Roman Catholic church by the controversial opponents of that school, whether themselves Roman Catholics or not. It is derived from the name of one of its principal and most influential exponents, Alfonso Maria de' Liguori, a theologian, saint, and doctor of the Roman church. In strictness, the term is not accurate, for Liguori was in no sense the founder of the school, nor did he innovate upon, develop, or exaggerate its principles and maxims. Alfonso Maria de' Liguori, son of Giuseppe de' Liguori, a Neapolitan noble, and of Anna Cavalieri de Brindes, his wife, was born at Marianella, near Naples, on September 27, 1696. He was called to the bar in due course, and obtained considerable practice, but soon adopted the ecclesiastica. dress as a candidate for orders, which he received in December, 1724, when he entered as a novice into the congregation of missions, being ordained priest in December, 1726. He soon became popular as a preacher and as a confessor, obtaining much influence in Naples and its vicinity. In 1732 he founded the "Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer," usually known as Redemptorists, or, as they are often named, Liguorians, whose special object is the religious instruction of the rural poor and other uneducated classes, establishing the first house of the society, in the face of much opposition, at the little town of Scala, about eight miles from point of fact he did not regain his liberty until NovemSalerno. The headquarters were transferred somewhat ber 7, 1640, when one of the earliest recorded speeches later to Ciorani, and in 1743 to Nocera dei Pagani, which of Oliver Cromwell was made in support of his petition is still the chief house. The confirmation of the rule to the House of Commons. In 1641 he received an inand institute was obtained from Benedict XIV. in Feb-demnity of £3,000. He entered the army, and in 1642 ruary, 1749, and in the following year Liguori, who had was taken prisoner at Brentford and tried for his life; previously made some minor literary ventures, pub- sentence would no doubt have been executed had not lished one of his most famous and popular books, Le the parliament by threatening reprisals forced his exGlorie di Maria, a book intended to promote the cul- change. He soon rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, tus of the Blessed Virgin; and in 1753 he issued his yet but in April, 1645, having become dissatisfied with the more celebrated Moral Theology, dedicating it to Pope general conduct of affairs, and especially with the preBenedict XIV., expressly as a "via media" treatise. dominance of Presbyterianism, he resigned his commisIn 1762, being then sixty-six years of age, he accepted sion; presenting at the same time to the Commons a the bishopric of Sant' Agata dei Goti, and in 1775 petition for considerable arrears of pay. His violent lanobtained permission from Pius VI. to resign his bish-guage in Westminster Hall about the speaker and other opric, on the plea, of enfeebled health, and retired to public men led in the following July to his arrest and the Redemptorist house at Nocera dei Pagani, where committal to Newgate, whence he was discharged, howhe died August 1, 1787, aged nearly ninety-one. He ever, without trial, by order of the House, in October. was decreed the rank of "Venerable" very speedily, In January, 1647, he was again committed to the Tower being so named by Pius VI. in 1796, was beatified by for accusations which he had brought against Cromwell, Pius VII. in 1816, canonized by Gregory XVI. in 1839, but was again set at liberty in time to become a disapan I finally declared a Doctor of the Church" by Pius pointed spectator of the failure of the leveling or ultraIX., March 11, 1871. He is one of the most copious democratic party in the army at the Ware rendezvous in of the later Roman theologians, and his productiveness the following December. The scene produced a deep extended over a period of thirty years, from the issue of impression on his mind, and in February, 1649, he along his Visits to the Blessed Sacrament in 1747 till the with other petitioners presented to the House of Comappearance of no fewer than eleven treatises in 1777. mons a paper entitled The Serious Apprehensions of a LIGURIA, in ancient geography, was the name given part of the People on behalf of the Commonwealth, to a portion of the northwest of Italy, including the dis- which he followed up with a pamphlet, England's New tricts on both sides of the Maritime Alps and the Ap- Chains Discovered (March 1, 1649), criticising Ireton, ennines, which border on the Tyrrhenian Sea from the and another exposing the conduct of Cromwell, Ireton, frontiers of Gaul to those of Etruria. Along the sea- and other leaders of the army since June, 1647. Finally, coast it extended from the river Varus or Var, which the Second Part of England's New Chains Discovered, separated it from Gaul, to the Macra (Magra), which a violent outburst against "the dominion of a counformed its limit on the side of Etruria, thus comprising cil of state, and a constitution of a new and unexperithe whole district between the mountains and the sea, enced nature," became the subject of discussion in the now known as the Riviera of Genoa. Beside this it House, and led anew to the imprisonment of its author comprehended a broad tract to the north of the same in the Tower on April 11th. His trial in the followrange, formed by the underfalls of the Apennines and ing October, on a charge of seditious and scandalthe hilly tract adjoining them, extending to the plains of ous practices against the state, resulted in his unanthe Padus or Po, that river itself constituting its north- imous acquittal, followed by his release in November. ern limits under the Roman administration. In January, 1652, for printing and publishing a petition against Sir Arthur Hasilrig and the Haberdasher's Hall for what he conceived to have been an injury tenced to pay fines amounting to £7,000, and moreover to be banished the Commonwealth, with prohibition of return under the pain of death. In June, 1653, he nevertheless came back from the Low Countries, where he had busied himself during the interval in pamphleteering and such other agitation as was possible, and was immediately arrested; the trial, which was protracted from July 13th to August 20th, indeed issued in his acquittal, to the great joy of London, but it was nevertheless thought proper to keep him in captivity for "the peace of the nation." He was detained successively in the Tower, in a castle at Jersey, and in Dover Castle. At Dover he came under Quaker influence, and signified his readiness at last to be done with "carnal sword fightings and fleshly bustlings and contests;" and in 1656, on giving security for his good behavior, he was set free. He settled at Eltham in Kent, frequently preaching at Quaker meetings in the place and neighborhood during the brief remainder of his troubled life. He died on August 29, 1657. LILAC, Syringa vulgaris, L., belongs to the olive family, Oleacea. The common lilac is said to have come from Persia in the sixteenth century, but accord-done to his uncle George Lilburne in 1649, he was sening to Heuffel it is indigenous in Hungary, the borders of Moldavia, etc. Two kinds of Syringa, viz., alba and carulea, are figured and described in Gerard's Herball (1597), which he calls the white and the blue pipe privets. The former is the common privet, Ligustrum vulgare, L., which, and the ash tree, Fraxinus excelsior, L., are the only members of the family native in Great Britain. The latter is the lilac, as both figure and description agree accurately with it. It was carried by the European colonists to northeast America, and is grown in gardens of the Northern and Middle States. LILBURNE, JOHN, an English secretary and prolific pamphleteer, was born in 1618. At the age of twelve he was apprenticed to a clothier in London, but appears at one time to have been law-clerk to Prynne. In February, 1638, for the part he had taken in importing and circulating the Merry Litany and other publications of Bastwick and Prynne, offensive to the bishops, he was sentenced to be publicly whipped from the Fleet prison to Palace Yard, Westminster, there to stand for two hours in the pillory, and afterward to be kept in jail until a fine of £500 had been paid. Though gagged at the pillory, and confined in prison, he was not the man to give up his opinions or forego the pleasure of expressing them, and in the following year he did not improve his prospects of a speedy release by the kind of literary activity to which he devoted his enforced leisure. In LILLE, capital of the department of Nord, France, and the ancient capital of Flanders, is situated about 155 miles by rail north of Paris, and at an elevation of seventy-five feet, in a low plain on the Deule, which flows to the Scheldt by the Lys. It is the chief fortress of the north of France, and headquarters of the first army corps, and is defended by a rampart and by a pentagonal citadel situated to the west of the town beside the Deule. The water of the river fills the moat, and the environs of the citadel can be laid under water. The church of Notre Dame de la Trielle, in the style of the thirteenth century, which has been in process of building since 1855, occupies the site of the old Château du Buc, the original nucleus of the city. The town-house, on the site of the old palace of the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, was built in 1846. The exchange, which dates from the period of the Spanish domination, is in an original style. It is surmounted by a graceful campanile, and contains a statue of Napoleon I., made from cannon taken at Austerlitz. In the middle of the great square stands a column, erected in 1848, commemorating the defense of the town in 1792. There are several large hospitals, faculties of medicine and of science, a Catholic institute, comprising the five faculties of theology, letters, law, science, and medicine, an academy of music affiliated to the conservatoire at Paris, several learned societies, and a large number of various kinds of schools. The picture gallery, with upward of 800 works, is one of the richest in the provinces, and the Wicar museum contains a unique collection of original designs of the great Italian masters. The town is an important railway junction, and is also provided with tramways. The principal industry is flax-spinning, in which thirty-five mills, with 190,000 spindles, give employment to 14,000 persons (of whom 9,000 are females). Forty thread-mills employ 2,000 persons, and fifteen factories, with 1,000 operatives, produce woolen goods worth from $600,000 to $800,000 per annum; 5,000 persons are engaged in cotton-spinning (115,000 spindles), to the amount of $4,000,000. There are besides eighty factories in which damasks, tickings and the usual staples of the linen trade are manufactured; quilts and packsheets occupy from 6,000 to 7,000 persons, and 4,000 are employed in producing the fabric out of which the smock frocks of the peasantry are made. Connected with these industries are dye-works, bleach-fields, and establishments for the production of engines, looms, and combing and carding machines; and there are also chemical works, sugar-works, breweries, and oil-works. The state manufacture of tobacco in Lille gives employment to 1,200 persons. The total population of Lille is 162,775 | simile in Cant. v. 13, unless the allusion is to the fragrance rather than to the color of the lips, in which case the white lily must be thought of. The "lilies of the field," Matt. vi. 28, are red lilies, and the comparison of their beauty with royal robes suggests their identification with the red Syrian lily of Pliny. Lilies. however, are not a conspicuous feature in the flora of Palestine, and the red anemone (Anemone_coronaria), with which all the hillsides of Galilee are dotted in the spring, is perhaps more likely to have suggested the figure. In the Middle Ages the flower continued to be common, and was taken as the symbol of heavenly purity. The three golden lilies of France are said to have been originally three lance-heads. LILYE, WILLIAM, one of the introducers of a knowledge of the Greek language into England, was born at Odiham about 1466, and died in 1523. LIMA, capital of the republic of Peru, as also of the department and province of Lima, is situated on an extensive plain, 500 feet above the sea-level, and seven miles east from its port Callao on the Pacific coast. The general connguration of the main portion of the city, previous to 1870 surrounded by walls, is that of an irregular triangle, whose base rests on the river Rimac, which separates the city from its offshoot or suburb of San Lazaro. Sheltered on the north and east by the spurs of the Andes, the city is exposed to the winds prevailing from the southeast, as also to those from the south and west. Although the atmosphere is moist, and the transitions of the seasons are rapid, the climate is not unhealthy, the rainfall being slight, and the variations of temperature not excessive. The summer commences in December, and the winter in June, and the mean temperature for the year is about 73° Fahr. The city is divided into five quarters or parishes, and is well laid out with broad and regular thoroughfares, the streets intersecting one another at right angles. The houses are spacious, but generally of only two stories, and are approached by portals leading into an open court or yard. In the principal square, which covers an area of nine English acres in the center of the city, stands a fine fountain of bronze. Here also are the cathedral, a stone structure with two lofty towers and a broad façade, the archiepiscopal palace, the government house, and the Portal de los Escribanos, containing the municipal offices and archives. LILLEBONNE, capital of a canton in the depart- Besides the cathedral there are five chief parochial and ment of Seine-Inférieure, France, 131 miles west-north-sixty-two other churches and chapels, and numerous west by rail from Paris, and twenty miles due east from monasteries and convents. The university, built in Havre, is a pretty little town, picturesquely built at the 1576, is the oldest in America; it contains the hall and foot of wooded hills, in the valley of the Bolbec, which offices used by the chamber of deputies. Lima has more falls into the Seine three miles lower, at Port Jérôme. than seventy schools, a public library containing upPopulation (1890), 6,000. ward of 40,000 volumes, and many charitable institutions, several of them connected with the religious The principal place of amusement is the amphitheater for bull-fights in the Plaza del Acho, accommodating 9,000 spectators. In the Plaza de la Exposicion is a marble statue of Columbus unveiling a figure of America. Of the many other monuments in Lima, the most famous is the bronze equestrian statue of Simon Bolivar in the Plaza de la Independencia (or de Bolivar), eleven tons in weight, commemorating the battle of Ayacucho, which secured the independence of Peru. As the capital of Peru, Lima is one of the most important trading centers in South America. It has, however, few home industries, its manufactured goods being chiefly imported from Europe via Callao, the medium of nearly all its foreign commerce. Several attempts have from time to time been made to establish factories, but the high price of labor has hitherto prevented any efforts on a large scale being permanently successful. In 1780 the population of Lima was LILLY, WILLIAM, an astrologer somewhat famous in his day, was born in 1602, at Diseworth in Leicester-orders. shire, England, and died in 1681. LILY, Lilium, the typical genus of Liliacea, embraces nearly fifty species, all confined to the northern hemisphere, about fifteen being natives of Japan and China, six of the mountains of India, eight of south Europe, five of the east and nine of the west coasts of North America. (See HORTICULTURE.) The white lily, L. candidum, was one of the commonest garden flowers of antiquity, appearing in the poets from Homer downward side by side with the rose and the violet. According to Hehn, roses and lilies entered Greece from the east by way of Phrygia, Thrace, and Macedonia. Mythologically the white lily, Rosa Junonis, was fabled to have sprung from the milk of As the plant of purity it was contrasted with the rose of Aphrodite. The lily of the Old Testament (shôshan) may be conjectured to be a red lily from the Hera. |