public libraries. Vespasian established a library in the Temple of Peace erected after the burning of the city under Nero. Domitian restored the libraries which had been destroyed in the same conflagration, procuring books from every quarter, and even sending to Alexandria to have copies made. He is also said to have founded the Capitoline library, though others give the credit to Hadrian. The most famous and important of the imperial libraries, however, was that created by Ulpius Trajanus, known as the Ulpian library, which was first established in the Forum of Trajan, but was afterward removed to the baths of Diocletian. In this library were deposited by Trajan the "libri lintei " and "libri elephantini,” upon which the senatus consulta and other transactions relating to the emperors were written. The library of Domitian, which had been destroyed by fire in the reign of Commodus, was restored by Gordian, who added to it the books bequeathed to him by Serenus Sammonicus. Altogether in the fourth century there are said to have been twentyeight public libraries in Rome. As the number of libraries in Rome increased, the librarian, who was generally a slave or a freedman, be- | came a recognized public functionary. The names of several librarians are preserved to us in inscriptions, including that of C. Hymenæus, who appears to have fulfilled the double function of physician and librarian to Augustus. When the seat of the empire was removed by Constantine to his new capital upon the Bosphorus, the emperor established a collection there, in which Christian literature was probably admitted for the first time into an imperial library. Diligent search was made after the Christian books which had been doomed to destruction by Diocletian. Even at the death of Constantine, however, the number of books which had been brought together amounted only to 6,900. The smallness of the number, it has been suggested, seems to show that Constantine's library was mainly intended as a repository of Christian literature. However this may be, the collection was greatly enlarged by some of Constantine's successors, especially by Julian and Theodosius, at whose death it is said to have increased to 100,000 volumes. Julian, himself a close student and voluminous writer, though he did his best to discourage learning among the Christians, and to destroy their libraries, not only augmented the library at Constantinople, but founded others, including one at Nisibis, which was soon afterward destroyed by fire. From the Theodosian code we learn that in the time of that emperor a staff of seven copyists was attached to the library at Constantinople under the direction of the librarian. The library was burnt under the emperor Zeno, in 477, but was again restored. Meanwhile, as Christianity made its way and a distinctively Christian literature grew up, the institution of libraries became part of the organization of the church. When the church of Jerusalem was founded in the third century a library was added to it, and it became the rule to attach to every church a collection of the books necessary for the inculcation of Christian doctrine. The largest of these libraries, that founded by Pamphilus at Cæsarea, and said to have been increased by Eusebius, the historian of the church, to 30,000 volumes, is frequently mentioned by St. Jerome. St. Augustine bequeathed his collection to the library of the church at Hippo, which was fortunate enough to escape destruc tion at the hands of the Vandals. The removal of the capital to Byzantium was in its result a serious blow to literature. Henceforward the science and learning of the East and West were divorced. The libraries of Rome ceased to collect the writings of the Greeks, while the Greek libraries had never cared much to collect Latin literature. The influence of the church became increasingly hostile to the study of pagan letters. The repeated irruptions of the barbarians soon swept the old learning and libraries alike from the soil of Italy. With the close of the Western empire in 476 the ancient history of libraries may be said to cease. During the first few centuries after the fall of the Western empire, literary activity at Constantinople had fallen to its lowest ebb. In the West, amidst the general neglect of learning and literature, the collecting of books, though not wholly forgotten, was cared for by few. The charge of books as well as of education fell more and more exclusively into the hands of the church. While the old schools of the rhetoricians died out new monasteries arose everywhere. Knowledge was no longer pursued for its own sake, but became subsidiary to religious and theological teaching. The proscription of the old classical literature, which is symbolized in the fable of the destruction of the Palatine library by Gregory the Great, was only too effectual. The Gre gorian tradition of opposition to pagan learning long continued to dominate the literary pursuits of the monastic orders and the labors of the scriptorium. During the sixth and seventh centuries the learning which had been driven from the Continent took refuge in the British Islands, where it was removed from the political disturbances of the mainland. In the Irish monasteries during this period there appear to have been many books, and the Venerable Bede was superior to any scholar of his age. Theodore of Tarsus brought a considerable number of books to Canterbury from Rome in the seventh century, including several Greek authors. The library of York, which was founded by Archbishop Egbert, was almost more famous than that of Canterbury. The verses are well known in which Alcuin describes the extensive library under his charge, and the long list of authors whom he enumerates is superior to that of any other library possessed by either England or France in the twelfth century, when it was unhappily burnt. The inroads of the Northmen in the ninth and tenth centuries had been fatal to the monastic libraries on both sides of the channel. It was from York that Alcuin came to Charlemagne to superintend the school attached to his palace; and it was doubtless inspired by Alcuin that Charles issued the memorable document which enjoined that in the bishoprics and monasteries within his realm care should be taken that there should be not only a regular manner of life, but also the study of letters. When Alcuin finally retired from the court to the abbacy of Tours, there to carry out his own theory of monastic discipline and instruction, he wrote to Charles for leave to send to York for copies of the books of which they had so much need at Tours. While Alcuin thus increased the library at Tours, Charlemagne enlarged that at Fulda, which had been founded in 774, and which all through the Middle Ages stood in great respect. The hopes of a revival of secular literature fell with the decline of the schools established by Charles and his successors. The knowledge of letters remained the prerogative of the church, and for the next four or five centuries the collecting and multiplication of books were almost entirely confined to the monasteries. Several of the greater orders made these an express duty; this was especially the case with the Benedictines. It was the first care of St. Benedict, we are told, that in each newly founded monastery there should be a library. Monte Cassino became the starting point of a long line of institutions which were destined to be the centers of religion and of literature. It must indeed be remem | Banksian, King's, and Grenville libraries are still preserved as separate collections. Other libraries of minor note have also been absorbed in a similar way, while, at least since the time of Panizzi, no opportunity has been neglected of making useful purchases at all the British and Continental book auctions. The collection of English books is far from approach In bered that literature in the sense of St. Benedict meant Biblical and theological works, the lives of the saints and martyrs, and the lives and writings of the fathers. Of the reformed Benedictine orders the Carthusians and the Cistercians were those most devoted to literary pursuits. The abbeys of Fleury, of Melk, and of St. Gall were remarkable for the splendor of their libraries. In a later age the labors of the congregation of St. Mauring completeness, but, apart from the enormous number form one of the most striking chapters in the history of volumes, the library contains an extraordinary quanof learning. The Augustinians and the Dominicans tity of rarities. Few libraries in the United States rank next to the Benedictines in their care for literature. equal either in number or value the American books in The British Museum ranks in importance before all the museum. The collection of Slavonic literature, due the great libraries of the world, with the single excep- to the initiative of the late Mr. Watts, is a remarkable tion of the Bibliothèque Nationale, at Paris, and far feature; after that of the St. Petersburg Imperial Liexcels the latter institution in the systematic arrange-brary it is believed to be the largest in existence. ment and accessibility of its contents. Recent changes deed, in cosmopolitan interest the museum is without a have somewhat limited its former universality of charac- rival in the world, possessing as it does the best Hunter, but it still remains the grand national repository of garian collection out of that country, the best Dutch literature and archæology. The library consists of over library out of Holland, and in short the best library in 1,550,000 printed volumes and 50,000 manuscripts. any European language out of the territory in which This extraordinary opulence is principally due to the the language is vernacular. The Hebrew books numenlightened energy of the late Sir Antonio Panizzi, ber over 12,000, the Chinese nearly 27,000, and the The number of volumes in the printed book depart-printed books in other Oriental languages about 13,000 ment, when he took the keepership, in 1837, was only volumes. Periodical literature has not been forgotten, 240,000; and during the nineteen years he held that and the series of newspapers is of great extent and inoffice about 400,000 were added, mostly by purchase, terest. Great pains are taken by the authorities to obunder his advice and direction. It was Panizzi, like- tain the copies of the newspapers published in the United wise, who first seriously set to work to see that the Kingdom to which they are entitled by the provisions of national library reaped all the benefits bestowed upon it the Copyright Act, and upward of 1,900 are annually by the Copyright Act. collected, filed, and bound. Under the English Copyright Act there were received, in 1881, not counting single pieces, such as broadsides, songs, etc., 8,857 volumes and pamphlets, and 21,792 parts of volumes, and through the international copyright treaties 941 volumes and 433 parts. The foundation of the British Museum dates from 1753, when effect was given to the bequest (in exchange for £20,000 to be paid to his executors) by Sir Hans Sloane, of his books, manuscripts, curiosities, etc., to be held by trustees for the use of the nation. A bill was passed through parliament for the purchase of the Sloane collections and of the Harleian MSS., costing £10.000. To these, with the Cottonian MSS., acquired by the country in 1700, was added by George II., in 1757, the royal library of the former kings of England, coupled with the privilege, which that library had for many years enjoyed, of obtaining a copy of every publication entered at Stationers' Hall. This addition was of the highest importance, as it enriched the museum with the old collections of Archbishop Cranmer, Henry prince of Wales, and other patrons of literature, while the transfer of the privilege with regard to the acquisition of new books, a right which has been maintained by successive Copyright Acts, secured a large and continuous augmentation, the yearly average of which has now reached 8,000 or 9,000 volumes. A lottery having been authorized to defray the expenses of purchases, as well as for providing suitable accommodation, the museum and library were established in Montague House, and opened to the public January 15, 1759. In 1763 George III. presented the well-known Thomason collection (in 2,220 volumes) of books and pamphlets issued in England between 1640 and 1662, embracing all the controversial literature which appeared during that period. The Rev. C. M. Cracherode, one of the trustees, be queathed his collection of choice books in 1799; and in 1820 Sir Joseph Banks left to the nation his important library of 16,000 volumes. Many other libraries have since then been incorporated in the museum, the most valuable being George III.'s royal collection (15,000 volumes of tracts, and 65,259 volumes of printed books, including many of the utmost rarity, which had cost the king about £130,000), which was presented (for a pecuniary consideration, it has been said) by George IV. in 1823, and that of Thomas Grenville (20,240 volumes of rare books, all in fine condition and binding), which was acquired under bequest in 1846. The Cracherode, The department of MSS. is at least equal in importance to that of the printed books. The collection of MSS. in the European languages ranges from the second century before Christ down to our own times, and includes the ALEXANDRIAN MS. (q.v.). The old historical chronicles of England, the charters of the AngloSaxon kings, and the celebrated series of Arthurian romances are well represented; and care has been taken to acquire on every available opportunity the unprinted works of English writers. The famous collections of MSS. made by Sir Robert Cotton and Harley, earl of Oxford, have already been mentioned, and from these and other sources, the museum has become rich in early Anglo-Saxon and Latin codices, some of them exhibiting marvels of skill in calligraphy and ornamentation, such as the charters of King Edgar and Henry I. to Hyde Abbey, which are written in gold letters, others interesting for different reasons, such as the book of Durham, in Latin and Anglo-Saxon, reputed to have heen Bede's own copy. The Burney collection of classical MSS. furnished important additions, so that from this source and from the collection of Arundel MSS. (transferred from the Royal Society in 1831), the museum can boast of an early copy of the Iliad, and one of the earliest known codices of the Odyssey. There is likewise an extensive series of ancient Irish texts, with many modern transcripts, the Bridgewater MSS. on French history, and Lord Guilford's similar collection to illustrate the history of Italy. Special reference may be made to the celebrated Bedford Missal, illuminated for the duke of Bedford, regent of France, and to Henry VI.'s copy of Hardyng's Chronicle. The Oriental collection is also extremely rich and ample, including the library formed by Mr. Rich (consul at Bagdad in the early part of this century), and a vast quantity of Arabic, Persian and Turkish MSS.; the Chambers collection of Sanskrit MSS.; several other collections of Indian MSS.; and a copious library of Hebrew MSS. (including that of the great scholar Michaelis, and codices of great age, recently brought from Yemen). The collection of Syriac MSS., embracing the relics of the famous library of the convent of St. Mary Deipara in the Nitrian desert, formed by the abbot Moses of Nisibis, in the tenth century, is the most important in existence; of the large store of Abyssinian volumes many were amassed after the campaign against King Theodore. The number of genealogical rolls and documents relating to the local and family history of Great Britain is very large. Altogether there are now over 50,000 MSS. (of which 8,500 are Oriental), besides 45,000 charters and rolls. The musical works comprise upward of 11,000 volumes of vocal and nearly 6,000 volumes of instrumental music, the number of separate pieces amounting to more than 70,000. The catalogue is in manuscript. The collection of maps, charts, plans, and topographical drawings is also a remarkable one. The maps are nearly 116,000 in number. London is very badly off as regards public libraries, and the largest general collection which is available without any tedious preliminary forms is that of the corporation of the city of London at the Guildhall. The library of the Patent Office is the largest scientific and technical collection, indeed the only one which is readily open to the public. There are at present 80,000 volumes, including a very extensive series of the transactions and journals of learned bodies. Medical and surgical libraries are attached to all chief hospitals and medical societies. For the fine arts there is the National Art Library (1852) at the South Kensington Museum, which is now an excellent collection of 56,000 volumes, 56,000 photographs, 25,000 drawings, and 80,000 prints. The best library of archaeology and kindred subjects is that of the Society of Antiquaries, consisting of nearly 20,000 printed volumes and 500 MSS. Among subscription libraries, the London Library stands first in order of importance. The library of the Royal Geographical Society (1832), is a valuable collection of 20,000 volumes of voyages and travels, and works on the sciences connected with geography, with many costly government publications and geographical serials. The catalogue has been printed with supplements down to 1880. The maps and charts number 35,000, with 500 atlases and 240 large diagrams. The principal library in Scotland is that of the Faculty of Advocates, who in 1680 appointed a committee of their number, which reported that "it was fitt that, seeing if the recusants could be made pay their entire money, there would be betwixt three thousand and four thousand pounds in cash; that the same be employed on the best and fynest lawers and other law bookes, conforme to a catalogue to be condescended upon by the Facultie, that the samen may be a fonde for ane Bibliothecque whereto many lawers and others may leave their books." In 1682 the active carrying out of the scheme was committed to the Dean of Faculty, Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, who may be regarded as the founder of the library. In 1684 the first librarian was appointed, and the library appears to have made rapid progress, since it appears from the treasurer's accounts that in 1686 the books and furniture were valued at upward of £11,000 Scots, exclusive of donations. In the year 1700, the rooms in the Exchange Stairs, Parliament Close, in which the library was kept, being nearly destroyed by fire, the collection was removed to the ground floor of Parliament House, where it has ever since remained. The library retains the copyright privilege conferred upon it in 1709. The number of volumes in the library is computed to amount to 265,000; of the special collections the most important are the Astorga collection of old Spanish books, purchased by the fac ulty in 1824 for £4,000; the Thorkelin collection, consisting of about 1,200 volumes relating chiefly to the history and antiquities of the northern nations, and including some rare books on old Scottish poetry; the Dietrich collection of over 100,000 German pamphlets and dissertations, including many of the writings of Luther and Melanchthon, purchased for the small sum of £80; and the Combe collection. The establishment of the library of Trinity College, Dublin, is contemporaneous with that of the Bodleian, Oxford, and it is an interesting circumstance that, when Challoner and Ussher (afterward the archbishop) were in London purchasing books to form the library, they met Bodley there, and entered into friendly intercourse and coöperation with him to procure the choicest and best books. The commission was given to Ussher and Challoner as trustees of the singular donation which laid the foundation of the library. The library now contains 192,000 volumes and 1,880 MSS., and about 3,000 volumes are added every year. France.--French libraries (other than those in private hands) belong either to the state, to the departments, to the communes, or to learned societies, educational establishments, and other public institutions; the libraries of judicial or administrative bodies are not considered to be owned by them, but to be state property. Besides the unrivaled library accommodation of the capital, France possesses a remarkable assemblage of provincial libraries. The communal and school libraries also form striking features of the French free library system. The Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris (still the most extensive library in the world) has had an advantage over all others in the length of time during which its contents have been accumulating, and in the great zeal shown for it by several kings and other eminent men. Enthusiastic writers find the original of this library in the MS. collections of Charlemagne and Charles the Bald, but these were dispersed in course of time, and the few precious relics of them which the national library now possesses have been acquired at a much later date. Of the library which St. Louis formed in the thirteenth century (in imitation of what he had seen in the East) nothing has fallen into the possession of the Bibliothèque Nationale, but much has remained of the royal collections made by kings of the later dynasties. The real foundation of the institution (formerly known as the Bibliothèque du Roi) may be said to date from the reign of King John, the Black Prince's captive, who had a considerable taste for books. The official estimate of the number of volumes in the Département des Imprimés now reaches the extraordinary total of about 2,290,000, but the contents have not been actually counted since 1791, and as the above enumerates pieces of which many are included in one volume, perhaps something like 1,827,000 is nearer the proper number. The annual additions are about 45,000. The réserve (consisting of articles of the highest importance) extends to more than 50,000 volumes. The collection of books on French history is in itself an enormous library, amounting to 440,coo volumes. The maps and charts, said to number 300,000, are included in this department. The Département des MSS. comprehended, in 1876, 91,700 volumes. The Département des Médailles possessed, in 1873, 143,030 coins, medals, engraved stones, etc., and since that date has acquired many important accessions. More than 2,200,000 engravings are in the Départment des Estampes, where 20,000 pieces are annually received under the copyright law. The annual vote for purchases and binding is 200,000 francs ($40,000). Paris is much better provided than London or any other city in the world with great public libraries. Be sides the Bibliothèque Nationale there are four libraries, each over 120,000 volumes (with others less extensive), to which the public have free access, the Bibliothèque | de l'Arsenal being the largest of them. Germany (with Austria and Switzerland).—Germany is emphatically the home of large libraries; her want of political unity and consequent multiplicity of capitals have had the effect of giving her a considerable number of large state libraries, and the number of her universities has tended to multiply considerable collections. Berlin is well supplied with libraries, seventy-two being registered by Petzholdt in 1875, with about 1,293,030 printed volumes. The largest of them is the Royal Library, which was founded by the "Great Elector" Frederick William, and opened as a public library in a wing of the electoral palace in 1661. From 1699 the library became entitled to a copy of every book published within the royal territories, and it has received many valuable accessions by purchase and otherwise. It is ⚫ now estimated to contain upward of 700,000 printed volumes and over 15,000 MSS. The amount yearly expended upon binding and the acquisition of books, etc., is $24,000. The libraries of Munich, though not so numerous as those of Berlin, include two of great importance. The Royal Library, the largest collection of books in Germany, was founded by Duke Albrecht V. of Bavaria (1550-79) who made numerous purchases from Italy, and incorporated the libraries of the Nuremberg physician and historian Scedel, of Widmannstadt, and of J. J. Fugger. The number of printed volumes is estimated at about one million, although it is long since any exact enumeration has been made. The library is especially rich in incunabula, many of them being derived from the libraries of the monasteries closed in 1803. The Oriental MSS. are numerous and valuable, and include the library of Martin Haug. The University Library was originally founded at Ingolstadt in 1472, and removed with the university to Munich in 1826. It participated in 1803 in the division of the literary treasures of the disestablished monasteries. At present the number of volumes in the general library amounts to 290,000, besides which several special collections are also deposited in the library to the number of 32,800 vol ing, and it is even open from nine to twelve on Sundays. In 1870, 159,768 volumes were used in the library, 16,300 volumes lent out in Vienna, and 4,418 volumes sent carriage free to borrowers outside of Vienna. The total number of libraries in Vienna enumerated by Doctor Petzholdt is 101, and many of them are of considerable extent. The public libraries of Switzerland have been very carefully registered by Dr. Ernest Heitz, as they existed in 1860. Altogether no less than 2,096 libraries are recorded; four-fifths of these belong to the class of "bibliothèques populaires et celles pour la jeunesse," and few are of literary importance. Only eighteen have as many as 30,000 volumes. The largest collection of books in Switzerland is the University Library of Basel, founded with the University in 1460. The monastic libraries of St. Gall and Einsideln date respectively from the years 830 and 946, and are of great historical and literary interest. Italy. As the former center of civilization, Italy is of course the country in which the oldest existing libraries must be looked for, and in which the rarest and most valuable MSS. are preserved. The Vatican at Rome and the Laurentian Library at Florence are sufficient in themselves to entitle Italy to rank before most other states in that respect, and the venerable relics at Vercelli, Milan, and La Cava bear witness to the enlightenment of the peninsula in times when other nations were slowly taking their places in the circle of Christian polity. The local rights and interests which so long helped to impede the unification of Italy were useful in creating and preserving at numerous minor centers many libraries which otherwise would probably have been lost during the progress of absorption that results from such centralization as exists in England. In spite of long centuries of suffering and of the aggression of foreign swords and foreign gold, Italy is still rich in books and MSS.; there are probably more books in united Italy than in any other country except France. When the Italian government published its valuable report on "Biblioteche" in the Statistica del Regno d'Italia in 1865, a table of relative statistics was given, which professed to show that, while the number of books in Austria (2.408,000) was greater than the total contents of the public libraries in any one of the countries of Great Britain, Prussia, Bavaria, or Russia, it was surpassed in France (4,389,000) and in Italy (4,149,281), the latter country thus exhibiting a greater proportion of books to inhabitants than any other state in Europe, except Bavaria. The opulent libraries of Rome and Venice had not yet become Italian, and were not included in the report. The largest library in Austria, and one of the most important collections in Europe, is the Imperial Public Library at Vienna, apparently founded by the emperor The Biblioteca Vaticana stands in the very first rank Frederick III., in 1440, although its illustrious libra- among European libraries as regards antiquity, since rian Lambecius, in the well-known inscription over the from the middle of the fifth century we have evidence of entrance to the library which summarizes its history, at- the existence of a pontifical library at Rome; and Pope tributes this honor to Frederick's son Maximilian. Zachary (d. 752), himself a Greek, is known to have However this may be, the munificence of succeeding added considerably to the store of Greek codices. The emperors greatly added to the wealth of the collection, Lateran Library shared in the removal of the papal including a not inconsiderable portion of the dispersed court to Avignon, and it was on the return of the library of Corvinus. Since 1808 the library has also popes to Rome that the collection was permanently been entitled to the copy privilege in respect to all books fixed at the Vatican. Nicholas V. (d. 1455) may, how published in the empire. The sum devoted to the pur- ever, be considered the true founder of the library, and chase of books is 26,250 florins annually. The main is said to have added 5,000 MSS. to the original store. library apartment is one of the most splendid halls in Calixtus III. also enriched the library with many volEurope. Admission to the reading-room is free to every- umes saved from the hands of the Turks after the siege body, and books are also lent out under stricter limi- of Constantinople. So large a proportion of the printed tations. The University library of Vienna was estab-books of the fifteenth century having been produced by lished by Maria Theresa. The reading-room is open the Italian presses, it is natural to expect that a great to all comers, and the library is open much longer than number of specimens may be found in the papal library, is the rule with university libraries generally. In win- and, but for the wholesale destruction of books and ter, for instance, it is open from five to eight in the even- MSS. during the sack of Rome by the duke of Bour bon in 1527, the Vatican Library would have been as rich in early printed literature as it is now rich in manuscripts. Frederick III. (1648-70); to him is mainly due the famous collection of Icelandic literature and the acquisi tion of Tycho Brahe's MSS. The present building (in the Christiansborg Castle) was commenced in 1667. Among notable accessions may be mentioned the collec tions of C. Reitzer, the count of Danneskjöld (8,000 volumes and 500 MSS.), and Count de Thott; the last bequeathed 6,039 volumes printed before 1531, and the remainder of his books, over 100,000 volumes, were Few libraries are so magnificently housed as the Biblioteca Vaticana. The famous Codici Vaticani are placed in the salone or great double hall, which is decorated with frescoes depicting ancient libraries and councils of the church. At the end of the great hall an immense gallery, aiso richly decorated, and extending to 1,200 feet, opens out from right to left. Here are pre-eventually purchased. In 1793 the library was opened served in different rooms the codici Palatini, Regin., Ottoboniani, Capponiani, etc. Most of the printed books are contained in a series of six chambers known as the Appartamento Borgia. The printed books only are on open shelves, the MSS. being preserved in closed cases. The present official estimate of the number of printed volumes is about 220,000, including 2,500 fifteenthcentury editions, of which many are vellum copies, 500| Aldines, and a great pumber of bibliographical rarities. There are 25,600 MSS. of which 19,641 are Latin, 3,613 Greek, 609 Hebrew, 900 Arabic, 460 Syriac, 78 Coptic, etc. Among the Greek and Latin MSS. are some of the most valuable in the world, alike for antiquity and intrinsic importance. It is sufficient to mention the famous Biblical Codex Vaticanus of the fourth century, the Virgil of the fourth or fifth century, the Terence equally ancient, the palimpsest De Republica of Cicero, conjectured to be of the third century, discovered by Cardinal Mai, and an immense number of richly ornamented codices of extraordinary beauty and costliness. The archives are apart from the library, and are quite inaccessible to the public; no catalogue is known to exist. Leo XII. has appointed a committee to consider what documents of general interest may expediently be published, and a greater liberality in the use of them is said to be contemplated. to the public, and it has since remained under state control. Two copies of every book published within the kingdom must be deposited here. The incunabula and block books form an important series. There is a general classified catalogue in writing in 295 folio volumes for the use of readers; and an alphabetical one on slips arranged in boxes for the officials. Spain and Portugal.-The chief library in Spain is the Biblioteca Nacional (formerly the Biblioteca Real) at Madrid. The printed volumes number 400,000 volumes, with 200,000 pamphlets; the accessions in 1880 amounted to 25,840 articles. Spanish literature is of course well represented, and, in consequence of the numerous accessions from the libraries of the suppressed. convents, the classes of theology, canon law, history, etc., are particularly complete. The number of bibliographical rarities was largely increased by the incorporation of the valuable collection formed by the wellknown bibliographer Don Luis de Usoz. There are 30,000 MSS., contained in 10,000 volumes and bundles; they include some finely illuminated codices, historical documents, and many valuable autographs. Among the libraries of Portugal the Bibliotheca Nacional at Lisbon naturally takes the first place. In 1841 it was largely increased from the monastic collections, which, however, seem to have been little cared for according to a report prepared by the principal Belgium and Holland.—The national library of Bel- librarian three years later. There are now said to be gium is the Bibliothèque Royale at Brussels, of which 200,000 volumes of printed books, among which thethe basis may be said to consist of the famous Biblio-ology, canon law, history, and Portuguese and Spanish thèque des Ducs de Bourgogne, the library of the Austrian sovereigns of the Low Countries, which had gradually accumulated during three centuries. After suffering many losses from thieves and fire, in 1772 the Russia.-The Imperial Public Library at St. PetersBibliothèque de Bourgogne received considerable aug-burg is the third largest library in the world, and now mentations from the libraries of the suppressed order of claims to possess 1,000.000 printed volumes. The Jesuits, and was thrown open to the public. On the official estimate of the number of printed books is Occupation of Brussels by the French in 1794 a number 1,000,000 volumes, with 19,059 maps and 75,000 prints of books and MSS. were confiscated and transferred to and photographs. The yearly accessions amount to Paris (whence the majority were returned in 1815); in about 28,000. The Russian books number 100,000 and 1795 the remainder were formed into a public library the Russica 30,000 volumes; the Aldines and Elzevirs under the care of La Serna Santander, who was also form a nearly perfect collection; and the incunabula are town librarian, and who was followed by Van Hulthem. numerous and very instructively arranged. At the end of the administration of Van Hulthem a large part of the precious collections of the Bollandists was acquired. In 1830 the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne was added to the state archives, and the whole made available for students. The national library of Holland is the Koninklijke Bibliotheek at the Hague, which was established in 1798, when it was decided to join the library of the princes of Orange with those of the defunct government bodies in order to form a library for the StatesGeneral, to be called the National Bibliotheek. In 1805 the present name was adopted; and since 1815 it has be come the national library. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.-The commencement of the admirably managed national library of Denmark, the great Royal Library at Copenhagen, may be said to have taken place during the reign of Christian III. (1533-59), who took pride in importing foreign books and choice MSS.; but the true founder was literature largely predominate. The MSS. number 9,415, including many of great value. There is also a cabinet of 40,000 coins and medals. The manuscripts include 26,000 codices, 41,340 autographs, 4,689 charters, and 576 maps. The glory of this department is the celebrated Codex Sinaiticus of the Greek Bible, brought from the convent of St. Catharine on Mount Sinai by Tischendorf in 1859. British Colonies.—Of such libraries as may be found in the British colonies there are very few that call for particuliar mention here. The largest collection of books in Canada is the library of parliament at Ottawa. Though founded in 1815 it contained very few books until 1841, when the two libraries of Upper and Lower Canada were joined. After being destroyed by fire, the library was reëstablished in 1855, chiefly for parliamentary use. It now contains 100,000 volumes. Books are lent out. The main library is a handsome octagonal apartment with beautiful carved work in Canadian whitewood. In the South African Public Library at Cape Town, which was established in 1818, there are 39,000 volumes, |