the West of the fur-trader was giving way before the advance of the farmer and miner.

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The significance of the fur trade in the history of the Far West is not found in the value of the skins which were collected. As in the first days of French exploration in the Mississippi Valley indeed, as in the first steps of the English and Dutch westward from the Atlantic coast the trader was the pathfinder for the settler. The French engagés and Scotch-Irish "free trappers" of the companies in the West explored the great rivers and their tributaries and found all of the passes of the Rockies and Sierras. General Ashley penetrated to the Great Basin in 1824, and within the next few years his associate, Jedediah S. Smith, several times traversed the mountains and deserts to the shores of the Pacific. Through the knowledge they gained of the geography of the western regions the traders made possible the overland migrations of the forties and the later occupation of the interior.

While the fur industry was at its height another type of commerce was opened with the Spanish settlements of the Southwest. Pike's involuntary visit in 1807 revealed the possibility of profitable relations between Santa Fé and the Missouri River settlements except for the Spanish law, which forbade intercourse between New Mexico and the outside world save through the fardistant port of Vera Cruz. The enforcement of the law thwarted all efforts to open trade until the revolt of Mexico against Spain inaugurated a more liberal régime. In 1821 came the first successful expedition, and thereafter the "commerce of the prairies" gradually grew until it attained considerable magnitude. The outbound wagons carried cotton and woolen cloth and garments, hardware, and other manufactures, and brought back hides, mules, and silver coin or bullion.

Beyond the Rockies, which formed the boundary of the Louisiana Purchase, the United States was one of four powers which contested the possession of the basin of the Columbia River, known as the "Oregon country." Spain claimed it by right of priority of exploration of the Pacific coast; Russia by virtue of the activities of her traders who operated southward from Alaska as far as Bodega Bay, just above San Francisco. English traders had also been active in the last two decades of the eight

eenth century, not only on the coast north and south of Vancouver Sound, but inland. The enterprise of the Canadian fur companies covered western Canada from the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific.

To the valley of the Columbia itself the claims of the United States seemed to its government paramount. Discovered by Captain Gray and first explored by Lewis and Clark, its trade likewise was first opened by Americans. In 1810 John Jacob Astor organized the Pacific Fur Company for operations on the northwest coast. The post of Astoria was established for this purpose near the mouth of the Columbia. But the War of 1812 was at hand, and the men at Astoria sold out to the British Northwest Company, which was also now ready to exploit the Oregon country, rather than run the risk of capture by a hostile warship.

After the Peace of Ghent the fate of Oregon was involved in the interpretation of the clause of the treaty which required the mutual restoration of occupied territory. Astoria was actually reclaimed under this provision, in spite of the fact that it had been sold, not captured. However, the respective rights of England and the United States to the region as a whole were left as before the War, and in 1818 a settlement was postponed by a treaty in which it was agreed that for ten years the citizens of both countries should enjoy equal rights of trade and occupation.

The "joint occupation" agreement, renewed in 1828, worked in the long run to the advantage of the United States. The trade of the Northwest Company declined with the passing years. On the other hand the thirties saw the beginning of a migration of permanent settlers from the United States which by the forties gave the Americans the major interest in the country. Thus the way was prepared for a final adjustment with England in 1846.

By the treaty of 1818 the boundary between the United States and Canada from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains was fixed along the forty-ninth parallel. West of the mountains the line remained undetermined under the joint occupation agreement, but both England and the United States were alarmed when in 1821 a Russian ukase forbade all foreigners to trade on the Pacific coast north of the fifty-first parallel. Three years later, however, by separate treaties with England and the United

States, Russia agreed to claim no territory south of 54° 40'. Meantime (1819) Spain yielded to the United States her interest in everything above latitude 42°. Thus after 1824 the joint occupiers of Oregon were the remaining rivals for the region between 42° and 54° 40', with the rights of the United States strengthened by whatever of validity the Spanish contention possessed.

THE ACQUISITION OF FLORIDA

The same treaty which dealt with the Spanish claim to Oregon transferred Florida to the United States. The situation on the Gulf coast east of the Mississippi was very unsatisfactory after the purchase of Louisiana. The possession by Spain of the strip of territory through which flowed the streams giving outlet to the southern portions of the United States was extremely inconvenient. As in the case of New Orleans before 1803, the interests of the United States forbade its transfer to any other European power, and both Jefferson and Madison were on the alert constantly for any move which seemed to tend in that direction.

In 1810 President Madison took advantage of an insurrection in West Florida to annex that province. The revolutionists had declared independence and appealed to the United States for annexation. Although the leaders were Americans and the whole proceeding savored of conspiracy, Madison by proclamation took possession of most of the province, professing "that in the hands of the United States it will not cease to be a subject of fair and friendly negotiation and adjustment" with Spain.

England, as the ally of Spain in the war against Napoleon, protested against this breach of international usage, but the protest was unheeded, for American relations with her were nearing the breaking point. Indeed, Madison went still further, for fearing British occupation of East Florida, he asked and received from Congress, in January, 1811, authority to take temporary possession of that province on the ground that "the United States could not see without serious inquietude any part of a neighboring territory in which they have . . so just concern, pass from the hands of Spain into those of any other foreign Power."

England made no effort to acquire the Floridas, but she used them as a base of operations against the United States during the War of 1812. The Gulf coast became in effect hostile terri

tory, for Spain was

careless of her obligations as a neutral, or unable to enforce them. British agents used the Spanish posts as

centers from which to incite the Creeks and other southern tribes against the Americans. Creeks took refuge among the Seminoles of East Florida after their defeat in 1814 and continued hostilities. These facts help to explain the eagerness of the people of the Southwest for the conquest of the Floridas. Jackson actually occupied Mobile and Pensacola after the Creek campaign, to prevent their use by the English, and in the course of his movements drove British forces from the nominally neutral ground.

The situation along the Spanish border did not improve after the peace. Amelia Island, at the mouth of the St. Mary's, was a nest of smugglers and freebooters; runaway slaves escaped to the Seminoles; British adventurers told the Creeks that the lands ceded by them in 1814 were restored by the treaty of peace;1 raids against the settlements in Georgia and Alabama brought on border warfare.

By the treaty of 1795 Spain was pledged to prevent exactly such disorders as were now rife, but her impotence threatened a chronic state of confusion and uncertainty. Late in 1817 the United States Government decided to take matters into its own hands. Amelia Island was occupied by troops, and Jackson, as major-general of the southern department, was dispatched to the Florida border with the Georgia and Tennessee militia. His instructions from the Secretary of War permitted him to "adopt the necessary measures to terminate" the conflict, and authorized him to pursue the Indians across the borderline into Florida, if necessary, in order to punish them severely enough to put an end to their marauding expeditions.

Jackson, moved by his old desire to conquer Florida, sent a letter to President Monroe, saying: "Let it be signified to me through any channel (say Mr. J. Rhea)2 that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States and in sixty days it will be accomplished." He afterwards asserted that he received the President's approval of his plan. Monroe on his part denied that he made any reply, being ill at the time. Supposing that he had the President's sanction, Jackson crossed the line, seized the Spanish posts, deprived the governor of his office, and even court-martialed and executed two British subjects whom he believed to be guilty of stirring up the Indians.

This vigorous conduct made Jackson more than ever a hero, especially with the people of the West. But they stirred the wrath of England and Spain and created a delicate situation for the administration to deal with. For several days the cabinet deliberated on the course to be pursued. They agreed that

1 The interpretation of the treaty accepted by both governments was that the United States was to make peace at once with the tribes still at war, and that these should not be deprived of lands as punishment for their share in the war. It had no bearing upon the terms of earlier treaties with the Indians.

2 One of the congressmen from Tennessee.